Cobá Part 5 of 9: Ball Court 2 in Grupo D

 

Classic-era statue of a Maya ball player. The player is crouched on one knee, ready to use his upper arm or shoulder to receive the ball and propel it back down the field. The sculptor managed to convey the player's sense of tension as he poised for action. However, the sculptor exaggerated--probably for effect--the protective gear around his mid-section. There is no way a ball player dressed like this could have maintained the necessary speed and agility the game required. 

Part 3 of this series covered Grupo Cobá's Ball Court 1 and explained how the game was played and its deep social, political, and religious meanings. In this posting I will focus on Ball Court 2 in Grupo D, the largest and most important court at Cobá. In addition to its size, Ball Court 2 is important because of who built it and when. It is also significant for the large hieroglyph panel set into the court's sloping wall. This panel contains information about several key rulers in Cobá's Early Classic history.

Overview

Site map of Cobá showing the location of Ball Court 2.  Grupo D is located between Grupo Cobá on the west and Grupo Nohoch Mul on the east. Sacbe #4, one of Cobá's internal "white roads", runs between these two groups of structures. Ball Court 2 is located near the eastern end of Sacbe #4, where it is marked Juego de Pelota ("Ball Game"). Ball Court 1, also labeled as Juego de Pelota is located in Grupo Cobá, near the western end of Sacbe #4. To find the Cobá archeological zone in Yucatan, see Part 1 of this series.

The playing field

View of the Ball Court, looking east. Its structure is similar to Ball Court 1, with a relatively narrow alley running between two sloping walls. Each wall is topped by a stone ring about half-way down the court. Tourists in the alley provide a sense of scale. I haven't been able to determine the dimensions of this court, except that it is larger than Ball Court 1. On the top of each side of the court are are multiple rooms with rectangular columns. These were the  viewing areas set aside for the elite spectators of Cobá and those of the visiting team. These viewing areas were ancient versions of the "skyboxes" in modern stadiums.

Ball Court 2 was built by Ix Ch'ak Cheen, one of several powerful women who ruled Cobá during the Classic era. She was the first of Cobá's rulers to be awarded the title of kaloomte' ("Supreme Warrior" or "King of Kings"). This meant that her rule extended beyond Cobá to a broader realm of towns and cities. The achievement of this title was a statement that Cobá had emerged as a major player in the ancient Maya world. Recently, a large panel was discovered in another part of Cobá. Its glyphs indicate that Ix Ch'ak Cheen was connected to Ut Chanal of Dzibanche's Kaaan Dynasty, a major Maya power. 

Field marker in the alley between the sloping walls. This one can be found in the middle of the western end of the alley (see previous photo, lower right). Inside the circle is a figure that has been variously described as a decapitated man, a jaguar, or a squirrel. The function of the marker in the game is unclear. 

A weather-worn stone skull is situated in the center of the alley. In the photo showing the playing field, this marker is half-way down the alley, just to the left of the man wearing blue shorts. This marker, like the one in the previous photo, is probably a reference to sacrifice. In the Maya myth about the Hero Twins, their father Hun Hunahpu (the Maiz God) was decapitated after losing a ball game with the Lords of the Underworld (Xibalba). The Hero Twins' myth dates all the way back to Pre-Classic times (400 BC-100 AD), as much as a thousand years before this court was built.

Plaques on Ball Court's sloping walls

Two panels are set into the sloping wall on the court's south side. On the left is a small, heavily-worn panel containing what may be the image of a captive. On the right, under the stone ring, is a much larger panel containing more than 70 glyphs. These inscriptions provide historical information about early rulers, as well as the city's original ancient name. 

Note the stone ring at the top of the wall. Imagine the difficulty in propelling a rubber ball through such a small opening. Since the use of hands or feet by players was prohibited, passing a ball through the ring would have been a rare event. Consequently, the players would have scored in other ways, such as preventing the opposing team from returning the ball down the court.

The glyphs on the panel contain information about the city and its early rulers. Unlike other sites that we have visited in Mexico, Cobá's original name is known. The ancient name Ko-b'a-a appears at least three times on this panel. Archeologists disputed among themselves about whether Ko-b'a-a referred to a toponym (place name) or a supernatural being. However, epigraphers (people who study ancient glyphs) recently determined that this was the city's original name because it was used in the context of the arrival of the ruling dynasty to Cobá.

The glyphs on the panel also mention Junnpiktook, the founder of Cobá's Dynasty in 494 AD. The glyphs contain at least three dates. The first, 505 AD, is the date Juunpiktook dedicated Ball Court 1. The second, 573 AD, is the date when an unnamed successor dedicated Ball Court 2. The successor's name, Ix Ch'ak Cheen, was recently found on a different panel near the Ixmoja pyramid. She dedicated the Ball Court shortly before her death. The third date, 574 AD, refers to her successor, Kak' Ti' Balam. His wife was Ix Che'enal, a Kaan Dynasty princess, who was briefly kaloomte' before abdicating in favor of her husband. 

Plaque of a captive on the slope of the north wall. The captive is seen in profile, kneeling with his arms raised and bound at the wrist. Although in better condition than the captive image on the south wall, this panel is also badly worn from centuries of exposure. Human sacrifice was sometimes a part of the rituals associated with this deeply symbolic game. Those sacrificed were generally war captives but sometimes included players. Whether they were the losers or the winners of the game is a matter of dispute among archeologists. Although hard to believe from a modern perspective, human sacrifice was sometimes considered an honor in the ancient Maya world.

Dzibanche also displayed images of captives on its monuments. These were statements of power and military prowess. Their inclusion on Cobá's panels and stelae demonstrates the strong cultural influence of the Kaan Dynasty. That dynasty, first based in Dzibanche and later at Calakmul, was one of the two great powers during the Classic era. Its great rival was Tikal, in northern Guatemala. During their centuries-long struggle for dominance, both cities assembled broad coalitions of client states and allies. Cobá was allied to the Kaan Dynasty through political marriages like the one between Kak' Ti' Balam and Ix Che'enal. 

West end of Ball Court 2

Southwest corner of the ball court. The overall structure has four levels and includes two small stairways, one at this end and one at the east end. The stairway on this end has a large tree growing out of its steps. The six initial steps rise to a small platform. From the platform, more steps lead up to the top-level rooms lined with the rectangular columns. The staircases on the south half of the Ball Court are much smaller and less impressive than those on the northern half. This leads me to believe that this half was intended for the visiting team.

West end of the northern half of the court. There is a room with two columns on this end, possibly for the use of the officiating priests or for storage of game equipment. A semi-circular structure is attached to the wall in the right foreground. It has no apparent entrance, so its purpose is unclear. The sloping north wall of the court is visible above. The angle of a ball court's slope affected the speed of the ball when it bounced off. The sharper the angle, the greater the speed. In this case the angle is fairly gentle. At Chichen Itza, the Ball Court walls are vertical.

The north side of the Ball Court has a broad staircase. The existence of this grand staircase suggests that it was intended for large processions by Cobá's ruling elite. No such staircase exists on the southern half of the Ball Court, which again suggests that the southern half was intended for the visiting team's elite spectators. Similar to Ball Court 1, this grand staircase has thirteen steps, possibly related to the thirteen levels of heaven. Everything related to a ball court, and to the game itself, carried deep religious meaning.

East end of Ball Court 2

The east end of the Ball Court. The woman standing at the entrance of the alley provides a sense of scale. To the right is the northern side of the court, while the southern side can be seen in the distance. The large rectangular columns lining the top of the southern side supported a roof to protect the spectators from the sun or rain. The end of the southern structure contains a narrow set of steps that winds up to the top.

View of the eastern end of the southern half of the court. The steps leading up turn several times before they reach the top. There is only room for a single file of people to climb up the steps. This precluded any opportunity for the elite spectators on this side to mount a grand procession. Perhaps the design was intended as a bit of psychological warfare? The sloping wall of the court's northern half, also topped with columns, can be seen at the right side of the photo. While the  encroaching jungle seems to hem in the structures above, this area would have been clear of vegetation in ancient times.

A partially-excavated structure stands near the eastern end of the Ball Court's alley.. There is a broad, four-step staircase along the southern side. I have found only one mention of this structure in the literature, but no explanation of its purpose. Since it stands so close to the court, it is likely to have some relation to the game. Perhaps it was for the performance of rituals associated with the game. It also might have provided a slightly-elevated viewing area for lesser mortals who weren't allowed on the top levels of the court.

This completes Part 5 of my Cobá series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

Cobá Part 3 of 9: Ball Court 1 at Grupo Cobá

Using his hip, a Maya ball player propels a hard rubber ball toward a stone ring. He wears a loincloth and a leather protector called a yoke around his mid-section. The leather yoke is necessary to protect him from the heavy rubber ball. Serious injury or even death could result if it struck the player in his stomach area. He also wears a leather helmet, for the same reason. The hips, upper legs, shoulders, and elbows were the primary parts of the body used in play, because the use of hands or feet was forbidden by the rules.

Cobá has two courts. Grupo Cobá, also called Group B, contains Ball Court 1. The court is located just north of the Acropolis, which is the first group of structures you encounter after entering the Cobá Archeological Zone. (See Part 1 for directions to Cobá). In this posting, I'll show you the two parallel structures which form Ball Court 1. I'll also show the two stelae (upright stone monuments) adjacent to it. Along with the photos, I'll tell you about the ball game itself and its relationship with the Maya view of the Cosmos.

Overview

Ball Court 1 is formed by two parallel structures labeled 17a and 17b. They are located a short distance north of Patio A and La Iglesia pyramid (see Part 2). A narrow alley runs between the ball court's parallel structures, forming the ground-level part of the playing area. Also part of the area of play are the sloping interior walls of 17a and 17b. Mounted high on the middle of each wall is a stone ring, similar to the one in the photo of the ball player. On the west side of Structure 17b, Stelae 9 and 10 stand side-by-side within a "U" shaped enclosure.

Elite spectators would stand on the top of the parallel structures to view the game as it was played below. They ascended to those positions by way of several staircases. The ones on the north and east sides of 17a  are impressive, while the ones on 17b are less so. In fact, 17a is the more complex structure in several ways. This leads me to believe that 17a was intended for use by the "home team" and its spectators, while 17b was for the visiting team.

The human figures on the two stone panels found at Ball Court #1 may be ball players. These panels are not Stelae 9 and 10, which will be shown at the end of this post. The panels above are quite weather-worn, so the figures and hieroglyphs carved into the limestone are difficult to discern. Some sources suggest that these figures may be prisoners captured during warfare. However, I doubt this. War captives are nearly always portrayed as small figures with bound hands, and in kneeling or subservient positions. The tall figures on these two panels stand erect, suggesting that they were people of importance deserving respect.

Grupo Cobá's Ball Court #1

Looking north along the playing field. The ball court's narrow alleyway and sloping walls form the playing area. Structure 17a is on the left and 17b is to the right. The walls don't extend all the way to the ground, but stop at narrow shelves. Then, there is  a short vertical drop to the ground. Mid-way down the field, at the top of the walls, you can see stone rings on either side of the court. The length of Ball Court #1 is 70m (230ft) and the alley's width is approximately 3m (10ft). The sloping walls are about 6m (20t) high, not including the structures on top. 

Ball Courts in Mesoamerica were built in a variety of sizes and designs. The smallest I have encountered is at the Zapotec city of Monte Alban, in Oaxaca. It is only about 15m (50ft) long, with an alley 2m (6.6ft) wide, with sloping walls that are around 1.5m (5ft) tall. The largest is at Chichen Itza, in north-central Yucatan. That huge court is 146.3m (480ft) long. Its alley is 36.6m (120ft) wide, with vertical walls that rise to 8m (26ft). Most cities in ancient Mesoamerica had ball courts. Some, like Cobá, had two or more. The city of Cantona, located in the state of Puebla, has the most. It contains twenty-seven courts! 

Stone ring on the west side (17b) of the court. The ball game is quite ancient. The earliest known courts date back to the Pre-Classic period. The oldest court yet discovered dates to at least 1400 BC and the oldest rubber ball to 1600 BC. The game may have been created by the Olmecs, known as the "Mother of Cultures". Whether or not they originated the ball game, it likely spread throughout Mesoamerica by way of their trade networks. However, the use of stone rings in ball courts was a much later innovation. They began to appear after 900 AD in the Post-Classic era.

Ball court rings come in various styles and sizes. The one above has a fairly large hole, about the size of a small beach ball. I have seen other rings that would only accommodate a ball about the size of one used today in soccer. While this ring is undecorated around its rim, others I have seen contain elablorate carvings of animals or abstract designs. 

Passing the ball through a ring was difficult and therefore probably rare. Doing so may have signaled an automatic win. The usual way of winning was to score points by moving the ball to the opponent's end zone or preventing him from returning the ball. Penalties were incurred by touching the ball with the hands or feet or letting it bounce more than once on the floor of the alley. 

Structure 17b, the Ball Court's west side

The north end of Structure 17b. A five-step staircase on the north end of 17b leads up to a platform, but not to the top of the structure. The purpose of this short staircase is not clear. It is possible that another flight of stairs once provided access from the platform to the top. However, due to the deteriorated condition of this end of 17b, it is not possible to say. However, the south end of 17b does have a narrow staircase that leads from the ground level up to the top. In the distance, beyond the five-step staircase, you can see part of the sloping wall of Structure 17a.

The south end of 17b, with its narrow staircase. On the right, the east wall of the playing area (17a) and its stone ring can be seen. On the left (west) side of 17b, you can see the thatched roof of the palapa which shelters Stelae 9 and 10. Although the playing field areas of the two parallel structures are identical, the overall size of 17b is slightly smaller and the spectator area on its top is less elaborate than the one on 17a. The reason for this is not clear. Perhaps 17b was intended for the use of the visiting team and its elite spectators, while the larger and more elaborate 17a was constructed for the home team. 

Structure 17a, the Ball Court's east side

View of the southeast corner of 17a. Carole is on the left, inspecting the south side of the structure. The sloping wall of 17b can been seen in the distance beyond her. The ledge above Carole contains several rectangular columns which once supported a roof. The purpose of this room is unknown, but it may have been used by players to store their clothes and possessions during the game. On the right (east side), a broad staircase can be seen. It leads up to 17a's colonnaded top. The three steps in the foreground lead down into Patio F.  (See site map above)

The east-side staircase of 17a. As I noted previously, these stairs allowed Cobá's elite to ascend to a position where they could view the game as it was played below. The rectangular columns lining the top level once supported a roof to shelter spectators from the sun or rain. While these stairs allowed access to the top, they also face into Plaza F, so they could have functioned at other times as stadium seats for viewing important ceremonies conducted in the plaza. This staircase has thirteen steps, an important number in the Maya world.

Most pre-hispanic people, including the Maya, believed that there were thirteen levels in heaven and nine levels in the underworld (Xibalba). In between these top and bottom dimensions was the earth, seen as a caiman or turtle floating in a primordial sea. Each of the levels of the upper and lower worlds was ruled by a particular god. The deity who lived at the thirteenth (top) level was Itzamna, the supreme creator god. 

Structure 17a's northeast corner. On the left (east) side is the broad staircase. The corner of 17a contains a small, colonnaded room with three pillars, accessed by a four-step staircase. This may have been used by an officiating priest. On the right is the mouth of a tunnel that runs beneath the staircase that is located on the north side of 17a.

In addition to the connection between 17a's east-side stairs and the levels of heaven, the ball game reflected other aspects of the Maya Cosmos. In 1550, a book called the Popul Vuh ("Community Book") was written by a Spanish priest. He based it on Maya oral traditions. There have long been doubts about its accuracy in recounting the centuries-old myths. However, in the late 20th century, excavations at the Pre-Classic city of El Mirador proved that the Popul Vuh faithfully represents those myths. One of the most important was about the Hero Twins and their famous ball game with the Lords of the Underworld.

The staircase on the north end of 17a reaches the top of the structure. This staircase is an example of how 17a is the more impressive half of the ball court. Along with the one on the east side, these stairs provided ways for large processions of Cobá's elite to mount the eastern half of the structure.  By contrast, 17b has one narrow set of stairs to the top on its south end. The staircase on its north end is much smaller than either of those on 17a. It also doesn't appear to reach the top level. 

In the Popul Vuh's story about the Hero Twins, their father was the Maiz (corn) God, known as Hun Hunahpu. He and his brother were great ball players and were summoned by the Lords of the Underworld to play a game. Hun Hunahpu and his brother were defeated and sacrificed by the Lords. Later, the twin sons of the Maiz God also became ball players. Like their father and uncle, the Hero Twins were summoned to play against the Underworld Lords. Using their ball game expertise, along with trickery, the twins defeated and sacrificed the Lords. They then resurrected the Maiz God, who became humanity's benefactor. 

The western end of the tunnel that runs completely under the north staircase of 17a. Tunnels like this served several purposes. Structurally, the corbel-vaulted tunnel provided support for the masonry above. In addition, the spaces could be used for elite gatherings, religious rituals, or storage. Finally, passageways such as this often symbolized transitions, such as the passage from death, through the underworld, to rebirth. 

The geographical orientation of Cobá's ball court also suggests a relationship with the Cosmos. The Maya believed that the Four Cardinal Directions (north, south, east, and west) were sacred and represented the structure of the Cosmos. The most important direction was east, where the life-giving sun rose. It set in the west, which represented death and the underworld. The sun's zenith was in the heavens at mid-day, which represented north. Its nadir was midnight, represented by south (the underworld). At Cobá, the ball court's axis is a little east of north, suggesting both the sun's rise and its zenith.

Stelae 9 and 10

Stelae 9 & 10 stand side-by-side on west side of the 17b. Stela 9 is on the left. Only about half of the original stela remains. It was discovered in 1893 by Austrian archeologist Teobert Maler. On its right is Stela 10. The lower half of 10 was discovered by Maler at the same time that he found Stela 9. The upper half of Stela 10 was't found until more than a century later. The west side of Structure 17b can be seen in the background.

Drawing of Stela 9. The stela is very worn and the upper part is still missing. Only the outlines of the hieroglyphs can be seen, along with the image of a man from his waist down to his sandaled feet. The cylindrical object that he holds across his chest indicates that he was a ruler. This symbol of high office is carried in the identical manner by rulers who appear on stelae throughout Cobá. 

Suspended down from his neck, almost to his ankles, is a horizontal bar with three tubular beads coming out of its right end. There were once beads on the left end, but they are too worn to be seen. Rulers wore bars like this when they dressed for war and intended to take captives. An almost identical bar, in good condition, can be seen on the lower portion of Stela 11 in Part 2 of this series. It is not clear why there are no bound captives at the feet of this figure, unlike those on Stela 11 and on other images of rulers at Cobá.  (Photo from Peabody Museum, Harvard University)

Drawing of Stela 10's top and bottom pieces. The lower part of the stela was found by Teobert Maler in 1893, standing next to Stela 9. More than a century later, in 1996, the upper section was discovered, buried in nearby rubble. The figure on the stela is a young man in good physical condition.

Drooping down from the back of his head is a kind of a pigtail, similar to the one on the ball player in the first photo. Also like that player, he is naked from the waist up and wears no sandals on his bare feet. Around his waist is the outline of what may be a protective yoke. All these factors strongly suggest that he is a ball player. (Photo from Peabody Museum, Harvard University)

This completes Part 3 of my Cobá series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below, or email me directly. If you leave a question, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely fashion.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

Cobá Part 1 of 9: A center of Maya power for 1000 years.

 A carved stone skull peers out from the wall of an ancient Maya ruin at Cobá. This is one of a pair of skulls that flank a flight of stairs on Structure B-2 in the Group B (Grupo Cobá) section of the ruins. The stairs lead up to Patio A, which contains La Iglesia ("The Church"), the second largest pyramid at Cobá. It is sometimes also called Nokhu. I will show the pyramid later in this posting. 

This begins my series on the city of Cobá. Politically and economically, it was one of the most important city-states in the ancient Maya world. Cobá was first inhabited in Pre-Classic times and continued to be occupied through the Classic and into the Post-Classic era, a span of time lasting about 1,800 years. There may have been a small population still in residence at Cobá when the Spanish first arrived in the 16th century. 

The main sites at Cobá are in four separate groups and this blog series will take you through them one at a time. Each group will take several postings. The pattern of habitation of the city was concentric, with the four groups in the center. The rest of the population, and the structures within which they lived and worked, was spread out in concentric circles. The overwhelming majority of the city has never been excavated.

Overview:

Cobá is about half way between Valladolid and the coastal town of Tulum. It is located in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo which runs along the eastern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula from its northern tip all the way to the nation of Belize in the south. Cobá is 47km (29mi) inland from Tulum, the site of another famous ruin. The city of Valladolid (see my Valladolid Adventures series) is about 60km (37mi) northwest of Cobá. The ruins can also be reached from Cancun, about 138km (86mi) on the northeast coast of the Peninsula. 

From Valladolid, take Highway 180 east for 28.9km (32mi) to the outskirts of the town of Chemax. Just before the town, a sign will indicate a right turn for Cobá and Tulum on Highway 109. After this turn, you drive about 30km (19mi) until you reach a glorieta (traffic circle). A sign will indicate a right turn for Cobá. Follow this road for several kilometers to the modern pueblo of Cobá. As you pass through the pueblo, the road curves to the left along a lake. After a few hundred yards, you will reach the gate to the Cobá Archeological Zone. Park in the lot and take the trail into the ruins.

 

The view from the top of Piramide Ixmoja reveals a vast expanse of flat jungle.     Cobá was unknown to Europeans until the late 19th century, in part due to this thick jungle. Another reason was the violent unrest that plagued the Peninsula, particularly during the 19th century. The Ixmoja pyramid is the 3rd tallest in the Yucatan Peninsula. The second is at Calakmul, near the border with Guatemala. The most lofty is at the recently excavated city of Ichbal, near Lago de Bacalar in southeast Quinana Roo. Cobá appears to have had a relationship with both of these city-states, as well as many others in the Maya world. 

The explorers John Stephens and Frederick Catherwood heard about Cobá's existence when they visited Chemax in 1842. However, the wild trackless jungle made it too remote to reach in the time available. Then, the Caste War broke out in this area in 1847, precluding almost all non-Maya from visiting. However, Juan Peón Contreras, Director of the Yucatan Museum, reached Cobá in 1882 and made a few sketches. In 1893, Teoberto Maler arrived and took a photo, but didn't publish it. Thus, Cobá remained unknown to the world until well into the 20th century. Serious excavation and restoration didn't begin until the 1970's.

This is the sort of jungle that early explorers encountered. Much of it still exists today. Archeologists have mapped 6,500 mounds in the jungle, in and around Cobá. However,  they have only excavated about 10% of them. The structures we see today are a tiny fraction of what was one of the Maya world's largest, most powerful, and most economically prosperous cities. At its peak Cobá had a population of about 50,000 and covered an area of 48 square km (30 square mi). However, the areas excavated so far are primarily the pyramids, temples, and palaces utilized by Cobá's elite inhabitants. 

The vast majority of the mapped mounds were once the residences and workplaces of the common people. Most of these structures were what the Maya called naho'ob: low stone platforms that were topped by perishable wooden structures, with palm frond roofs. However, among the mounds that have been excavated, differences have been noted in their size and complexity. This suggests that the commoners were not an undifferentiated mass, but had differing levels of status and wealth, like most complex urban societies.

Among Cobá's outstanding aspects are the number and length of its sacbeob. A sacbe (sacbeob is the plural) is a raised stone causeway and Cobá has at least 50. Shown above is a chart of the ones built to reach outlying areas. The map does not include most of the sacbeob internal to the city itself. One sacbe reaches all the way to Yaxuna, just south of Chichen Itza. Its length is a whopping 100km (62mi). The workers used tools made of stone, wood, and bone. No wheeled vehicles or draft animals were available to these ancient people. It was all just human labor. Few Maya cities equal Cobá in sacbeob.

There are several lakes in the area of Cobá, including Lago de Cobá, Lago de Macanxoc, Lago de Yax, and Lago de Sinacal. In addition to its sacbeob, these naturally occurring lakes were important factors in the city's economy and power. Most of the Yucatan Peninsula has no above-ground lakes or rivers and the climate can be quite dry for long periods of each year. In many places limestone sink holes called cenotes are the only water sources. The easy availability of large quantities of fresh water for drinking and agriculture gave Cobá a substantial advantage over many of its rival city-states.

Remains of a sacbe, still functional more than 600 years after Cobá was abandoned. To construct a sacbe, Maya engineers first built retaining walls on either side, then laid down a layer of large stones. Covering these were several layers of smaller stones, ranging from cobble to gravel. The top layer was sascab, a naturally-occurring powdered limestone, mined in local areas. Finally, the sascab layer was covered by stucco, made by burning limestone and mixing it with water to create a brilliantly white surface. Sacbe, in fact, translates as "white road". Archeologists speculate that, since the climate was hot, travel occurred at night and the white surface helped people follow the road.

The sacbeob served multiple purposes. They facilitated the movement of people and goods between Cobá's domain and other city-states. They also enabled the rapid movement of troops to outlying areas in order to conquer them, or to fend off rival city-states. The shining white roads were also an expression of the political power of Cobá's ruling elite. There were downsides, however. First, the roads could literally pave the way for invaders. Second, creating the stucco required the burning of limestone.This, in turn, required a great deal of wood, contributing to deforestation and ultimately to ancient climate change.

The excavated portions of Cobá include four main groups of structures. The sacbe from the entrance at Lago Cobá leads you to Group B, also known as Grupo Cobá (Ruffled Water Group). This is the oldest part of the city and is the site of Ball Court #1 and the Acropolis containing La Iglesia pyramid. Continuing on, you come to a fork. Sacbe #4 heads off to the left and Sacbe #9 goes right. 

Nestled in the fork and continuing up to the left along Sacbe #4 is Group D. This contains the Conjunto de Pinturas (Paintings Group), Ball Court #2, and other structures. It is the newest part of the city and was built primarily in the Post-Classic period. At the end of the left fork is Group C, or Grupo Nohoch Mul (Big Mound), the site of Piramide Ixmoja. The right fork--Sacbe #9--takes you to Group A (Grupo Macanxoc), the ruins of which contain a large number of stelae.

There are hundreds of structures in these four groups, more than I could possibly examine and photograph during our day-long visit. In addition there are many more not shown on the map above, which only focuses on the main sites. Consequently, this series will only provide a taste of what there is to see at Cobá. It would take days, or perhaps several separate visits, to see the majority of the excavated structures. So, allow yourself plenty of time when you visit. To shorten the walk between the groups, you can rent a bike at the entrance.

La iglesia and Stela 11

Piramide La Iglesia stands on the north end of the huge Acropolis platform. The open space in front of the pyramid is Patio A. At the lower left is Stela 11, covered by a small palm frond palapa. La Iglesia is the second tallest pyramid in Cobá and stands 24m (79ft) high. There are nine levels, each with the rounded corners characteristic of the Petén style. The number of levels may relate to the nine levels of Xibalba (the Maya underworld). Unfortunately, climbing the pyramid is no longer allowed. Stela 11 will be shown in Part 2 of this series, along with some of the treasures that were recently unearthed at its base.

La Iglesia was built in the Early Classic period (300-600 AD) and had several modifications over the centuries. The last was during the Post-Classic era (1000-1450 AD), when a temple was added on top. The Acropolis platform contains the largest concentration of buildings at Cobá. There are 43 structures, various courtyards, a grand plaza, and several stelae. While most were not accessible when we visited, I was able to photograph some on the north and west sides, as well at Ball Court #1. I will show all these in Parts 2 and 3 of this series. Six of Cobá's sacbeob branch out from the Acropolis in various directions.

The ancient Maya constructed a tunnel into the left side of La Iglesia. The tunnel has a corbel arch and two rooms that branch off to the right. Entry to the tunnel was not allowed, so this was all I could photograph. The purpose of the tunnel is not clear, but it may have served to store sacred ceremonial objects or for secret rituals open only to priests and the ruling elite. The far end of the tunnel is blackened. This may be natural or it may be carbon from the sacred fires burnt as part of the secret rituals.

A seven-step staircase leads up to Patio F.  The north wall of the Acropolis platform forms the south side of the Patio. On the left side of the photo is the south end of Ball Court #1. The east side of the Ball Court structure and the north wall of the Acropolis form two of the four sides of Patio F. The layout of the Acropolis seemed a bit jumbled when I first encountered it. Part of this is probably a result of its many modifications over the centuries. However, as I have studied it more closely, I can see some interesting results from these modifications. 

For example, the east side of the Ball Court apparently had two functions. It is basically a broad staircase that leads up onto the top of the structure. From there, a person facing west could view the game on the playing court below. On the other hand, the stairs themselves face east, into Patio F. This would make them into grandstand seats for a crowd facing in that direction to watch ceremonies or rituals conducted in the Patio. The Maya engineers were extraordinarily clever in their architectural designs.

A small broken stela stands under a palapa near the Acropolis. It is surrounded on three sides by a low U shaped structure. The palapa is a modern addition to protect the stela. Stelae often contain hieroglyphs and the images of rulers, but some are blank like this one. There are at least 34 stelae and inscribed panels at Cobá, some of which have yielded important historical information about rulers and events. Often they include dates from the Maya calendar which enable archeologists to construct a timelines. In the course of this series, I will show some of these stelae and panels. 

This completes Part 1 of my Cobá series. My next two posts will focus on other structures on or around the Acropolis. I hope you have enjoyed this first part. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, please don't forget to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

Ek Balam Part 7 of 7: The spectacular tomb of Ek Balam's greatest ruler

Two "Warrior Angels" adorn the facade of the ruler's tomb. The tomb of Ukit Kan Lek Tok' is on the fourth level of the Acropolis. It wasn't discovered until the beginning of the 21st century because it had been deliberately covered over by the ancient Maya. In fact, serious archeological excavations at Ek Balam itself didn't begin until the mid-1990s. The tomb's facade contains several other statues, some intact and some beheaded, but all were carved with equal artistry. Along with the statues are numerous hieroglyphs and other decorations. The tomb's interior contained thousands of artifacts.

In this final part of my Ek Balam series, I will focus on the tomb, its exquisite stucco statues, and the meaning behind some of its decorations. Ukit Kan Lek Tok' was described as a "foreigner" on glyphs found at Ek Balam. He probably came from southern Yucatan, bringing with him the Rio Bec and Chenes styles of art and architecture. He founded the Talol dynasty in 770 AD and probably died around 802 AD. His dynasty lasted 100 years, until 870 AD. During Ukit Kan Lek Tok's rule, he built Ek Balam's Acropolis and also constructed many of the other important structures within the city. 

The entrance of Tomb is through the mouth of the Witz Monster

The tomb is located on the west side of the Central Staircase on the fourth level. A hieroglyph painted on the capstone just inside the door names the tomb Sak Xok Naah (translated as "White House of Respect" or "White House of Reading"). Large panels of hieroglyphs decorated the walls on either side of the main door. The terrace in front of the main door has fangs, making it look like the lower jaw of a monster. More fangs line both sides of the door and the area above it. The base of the terrace is lined with stylized fish and lillies, an important symbolic link to water. There are two staircases, one on either side. 

The city of Ek Balam contains a mix of archeological styles from various regions of the Maya world. These include Petén (northern Guatemala), Puuc (northwestern Yucatan), and Rio Bec (southern Yucatan Peninsula). The monster fangs and ornate hieroglyphic designs are features of the Chenes style. This style flourished in the central lowlands of the Yucatan Peninsula from 600 AD-800 AD and geographically overlaps the Rio Bec style. The fact that the Chenes style was used on Ukit Kan Lok Tek's tomb strongly suggests he may have been from that area. 

View of the tomb's fangs and hieroglyphic panels. The Warrior Angels can be seen in the upper right corner. To the right of the main door is another, smaller one. A similar door can be seen to the left of the main door in the previous photo. The area around the main door was constructed to resemble the face of a monster, with two eyes, a nose, and a lower jaw with jutting teeth. The open door is the gaping mouth. All this wasn't just whimsey, but represents the face of an important mythical figure that the Maya called the Witz Monster. 

The Witz Monster, also known as the Earth Monster, was the personification of mountains, caves with water, and the world of the dead (Xibalba). The Witz Monster was also connected with maiz and was sometimes portrayed with an ear of maiz sprouting from its head. Caves were often important water sources, creating another link to the Witz Monster. Finally, caves were believed to be entrances to Xibalba. The face of a Chenes-style Witz Monster would therefore have been an appropriate facade for the tomb of a king from the Chenes region. 

The room on the right side of the tomb was built to resemble a Maya hut, called a nah. Many rural Maya still live in huts shaped like this. A traditional nah is constructed with upright sticks covered with mud, with a thatched roof. The style is called wattle-and-daub. Images of a Maya nah are displayed in a variety of elite Maya structures. An example of this can be found at the Nun's Quadrangle at Uxmal. I remain puzzled as to why an imitation of a commoner's hut would appear next to the royal tomb of Ek Balam's High King, or as a decoration on the wall of an elite palace at Uxmal. 

The stucco roof of the imitation nah contains another monster face. The projection in the middle is the nose, with a row of teeth below. The eyes are in the upper corners of the rectangular structure from which the nose projects. Although it is all quite abstract, if you look closely you can make it out. The purpose of this room is not clear, but it may have been constructed to contain the remains of the ruler's relatives. Another possibility is that priests used it to store clothing and other items used in religious ceremonies, similar to a sacristy in a Catholic church.  

The left side of the temple has a similar nah-shaped room. In addition to its front entrance, there is another on the side. The decorative roof seen on the right-side structure is absent from this one. It may have been destroyed during a partial collapse of the upper levels of the Acropolis. The tomb and its two adjacent rooms were deliberately filled with rubble and buried by the Maya some time after the ruler was placed inside. During the following century, the rooms were re-opened and inscriptions were added. Then the tomb complex was re-buried. This process of burial, re-opening, and re-burial was repeated several times.

Glyphs on left side of the tomb's main door. A similar large panel can be found on the right side of the door. Unfortunately, I have not been able to find any information about their meaning. The symbols on the two panels are almost identical. However, their arrangement on the two panels are reverse mirror images of each other. Notice the monster face on the right center of the photo. There is a matching face on the right side of the main door. There has been some debate over what mythical figures these faces represent.

A monstrous face decorates the left hieroglyphic panel next to the tomb's door. Some sources say this represent the Witz Monster. Other sources claim that it is the Maiz God. Both of these mythical figures are associated with maiz. My vote, for what it is worth, is for the Witz Monster. The face above has glaring eyes, an open mouth, and large teeth, all typical of the Witz Monster. It also has an ear of corn growing out of the top of its head, another typical aspect. 

The Maiz God images that I have seen show him as a handsome young man with a smooth, attractive face. He is sometimes portrayed carrying maiz ears in his hands or in a pouch on his back, but never growing out of his head. Given that this is a tomb, representing the entrance to the underworld, I believe that the two faces bracketing the tomb's entrance must represent smaller versions of the Witz Monster. 

The tomb's exquisite statues

One of the Warrior Angels stands on the upper right corner of the facade. The two life-sized statues were given this name because of the supposed "wings" sprouting out of their backs. However, I doubt that these actually represent wings. It is more likely that they are feathered cloaks. There is nothing that I could find in Maya mythology about supernatural winged figures in human shape. The concept of angels was not introduced until the Spanish arrived, 700 years after these statues were carved.

The youthful male figure above represents a member of Ek Balam's top nobility. In life, elaborate head dress would have been made of a combination of feathers and paper. The figure wears expensive jade jewelry, including a pendant, ear spools, bracelets, and anklets. His clothing includes an embroidered loincloth and a wide belt that resembles a ball player's protective gear, called a yoke. On the yoke are a series of Xs, symbolizing the divine source of a ruler's power. Hanging over the groin is a pouch that reminds me of the sporran worn with a kilt in Scotland. The pouch is decorated with a grinning human face.

A second Warrior Angel stands a short distance to the left. This statue has an interesting haircut that might actually be a close-fitting cap. Note the statue's elongated skull. Noble parents deliberately shaped the skulls of their infant children in this way in order to mark them as aristocrats. The figure wears a necklace and bracelets of jade. The garment around the hips has dots that may represent the markings on a jaguar's pelt.  Around the waist is another ballplayer' yoke, also decorated with Xs. The figure gazes off to the right, in a posture that suggests a readiness to spring into action. 

Aside from the beautifully-preserved artistry of these statues, I was fascinated with them because they capture a moment in  time. They show, in considerable detail, how the local people (or at least the nobility) saw themselves. It is almost like having a time machine capable of bringing these ancient, long-forgotten people to life. The statues and other images of pre-hispanic people all too often feel stylized and over-decorated. The figures here appear ready to come to life before my eyes.

A headless statue of Ukit Kan Lok Tek' sits directly above the Witz Monster's mouth. The Kalo'mte (High King) occupies a throne above the main door of the tomb. Feathered "wings" spread out on either side. The statue's head and left arm are missing, probably due to the collapse of the wall above. The wide belt resembles a ball player's protective gear and the spherical object near the left foot may be a ball. This suggests that Ukit Kan Lok Tek' was a participant in ball games himself, as well as a sponsor. The face attached to the belt may represent the severed head of a defeated ball game opponent.

When the tomb was opened, archeologists found the ruler's remains, along with more than 7,000 grave goods. These included 21 ceramic and alabaster vessels, as well as a gold frog, jewels of jade and pearl, and shells carved into skulls. Other grave goods were made of flint, bone, and pyrite. In the ruler's hand was a human femur bone. Hieroglyphs on it identified the bone as belonging to Ukit Ahkan, a priest who was the ruler's father. The femur had been carved to a point on one end and may have been used for auto-sacrifice (ritual blood letting). It was not unusual for the Maya to use of the bones of relatives in this way. 

A graceful figure sits casually in the corner of the Witz Monster's left eye. The naturalism in this sculpture is striking. Although Maya sculptors sometimes stylized their depictions of human forms, they are also renowned for their naturalism. The young man above sits with his hand resting on his knee. The other hand extends across his chest, with the fingers casually wrapped around his upper arm. The eyes of his turned head appear to be watching a game being played in the Ball Court below. A modern viewer can instantly relate to this very recognizable human figure.

Within the tomb is another painted capstone. On it, Ukit Kan Lek Tok' is portrayed as the Maiz God, deity of the plant that made pre-hispanic civilizations possible. The interesting thing about this painting is that it shows the High King with a deformed upper lip. This is very unusual, both because he was the ruler and because the Maiz God is normally portrayed as a beautiful young man. In fact, when the ruler's skull was examined, scientists discovered that he had suffered from a disease of the maxillary area. The ancient artist chose--or was allowed--to show him as he was in real life, not as an idealized version.

The corner of the Witz Monster's right eye contains another very natural figure. The headless statue of a young Maya noble sits erect and cross-legged. The clothing, particularly the yoke/belt, suggests yet another ball player. A pendant containing a small face hangs from his neck. Notice the fine details of his hands and feet. I can even make out what appears to be a toenail on the left foot. This statue was apparently another victim of a long-forgotten structural collapse. 

The gold frog found in Ukit Kan Lek Tok's tomb presents an interesting question: where did the gold come from? There were virtually no sources of gold in the Maya area. The nearest sources were in what is now Panama and Costa Rica, or in Central Mexico. The presence of gold in northern Yucatan illustrates the importance of Mesoamerica's long-distance trade networks. Jade was valued even more than gold. Most jade was imported from the Valle Rio Motagua in southern Guatemala, also a long way from Ek Balam. One heavily used trade route was by seagoing canoe along the Caribbean coast from South and Central America.

This statue stands at the far left of the tomb's facade. The head, left forearm, and the entire right arm are all missing. Dangling from the neck is a jade necklace. Around the waist is a ball player's yoke containing Xs. Around the hips is a dotted jaguar pelt. The belt that holds up the pelt appears to be made from large pieces of jade. Dangling in front of the groin is another "sporran" pouch. The upper chest and shoulders are covered by a light, fringed garment. 

Most of the statues on the tomb's facade have certain things in common. All, except for the High King, are slim, athletic-looking young men. All--including the High King--wear a ballplayer's yoke and seem to be associated with the Ball Game. Several of the yokes contain the Xs that represent the divine power of the ruler. The jaguar-pelt hip coverings would only have been allowed for those belonging to the nobility. 

A ruler sits cross-legged on his throne, with his lap covered by an embroidered cloth. The identity of this figure is unknown, but he is clearly royalty. While the statue is located on the same level as the tomb, it sits several meters to the east. In this case, the lack of a head may be deliberate rather than accidental. When an ancient Maya city was conquered, it was standard practice to not only sacrifice the defeated ruler, but also to decapitate or otherwise deface statues and other images of him. 

The figure above wears a jade necklace with a wide collar under it. Around the waist is another wide belt. However, this one does not resemble a ballplayer's yoke and the stone is too worn to tell if there are any Xs. The right hand clutches an object which may be a symbol of power. My best guess is that this is a statue of one of Ukit Kan Lek Tok's dynastic successors.

This completes Part 7 of my Ek Balam series and the series itself. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please include your email address so that I may respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim