Tapalpa Plateau Part 3 of 6: Hotel Casona de Manzano

Hotel Casona Manzano is a former colonial-era mansion. This beautiful property, called a casona (in-town mansion), is more than 200 years old. It is located on the corner of Calles Agustin Yanez and Francisco Madero, two blocks from the main plaza. My research turned up repeated mentions of this Hotel, so I decided to stop by so that the members of my group could learn about the lifestyle of families who owned haciendas but often preferred to live in towns. 

Like Casona de Manzano, many of these old mansions have been converted into hotels in recent years. No advance call was necessary, we just showed up and asked to look around (that's our group in the photo). The staff was very friendly and gave us the run of the place. The original property was built late in the colonial period, toward the end of the 18th century, and has since been owned by the Manzano family ever since. Sra. Irma Manzano, the current owner, was the one who decided to turn it into a boutique hotel. 

The courtyard

The two story home is built around a cobblestone courtyard. The entrance leads in to a short hallway called a zaguan and then into this courtyard. This is a typical feature of Spanish colonial architecture. Most of its 10 guest rooms are arranged around the ground floor. On the second floor, an arcade surrounds and overlooks the courtyard. Ferns and other plants create a cool, garden-like feel on the ground floor. The second floor contains a living room, dining room, kitchen and more guest rooms. 

A typical colonial casona was a comfortable home, and sometimes even opulent. The house was usually located in a town like Tapalpa, not too far from the hacendado's rural estate. Often, casonas can be found on the main plaza or within a couple of blocks of it. Since life on a hacienda was often rustic and towns typically afforded more cultural amenities, casonas were favored for day-to-day living by many hacendados, particularly those with families.

An unusual fountain stands in the center of the courtyard. The central placement of the ceramic pot and its grinning frogs, along with the circular drain, revealed the purpose of this little vignette. It is a typically quirky example of the Mexican sense of humor.

Various headgear hangs on a hatrack near the courtyard's entrance.  I like hats, so my eye was immediately attracted to this display. Prominently placed in the upper center is the classic high-peaked, broad-brimmed Mexican sombrero. Versions of it were worn by all classes of Mexicans for hundreds of years. 

The sombereos that hacendados wore were made with fine, embroidered cloth, much like those still worn by Mexican charros (rodeo riders) and mariachi musicians. The sombreros of peones (farmworkers) were of straw and often tattered. Today, in the rural areas, most men wear American-style cowboy hats. However, I still encounter elderly Mexicans wearing a classic straw sombrero. 

A heavy wrought-iron chandelier hangs near the stairs. In the past, the chandeliers were lit with candles rather than light bulbs. The candles would have been made from the fat of animals raised on a local hacienda, possibly one belonging to a family who also owned the casona. Although Mexico's first electric generating plant began operating in 1879, electrification wasn't widely available in the rural areas until the grid was nationalized during the second half of the 20th century. 

A large, beautifully-carved armoire stands against the courtyard wall. This piece is typical of the massive furniture often favored by hacendados for both their casonas and the casas grandes (big houses) on their haciendas. I rarely encounter closets in colonial and early Republic homes. The favored solution for storing clothing and other items was a large wooden armoire, often exquisitely carved. 

Staircase to the casona's second floor. In one corner of the courtyard, a staircase rises up, supported by a wooden pillar with a wrought-iron railing.

La Sala (Living Room)

At the top of the stairs, a tiled arcade leads to La Sala. The furniture along the wall suggests a bar, but seems to be more decorative than functional. The arcade overlooks the courtyard and extends around the perimeter of the second floor.

La Sala is at the far end of the 2nd floor from the stairs. This inviting room is dominated by a massive fireplace with two large couches and an equipal chair. A case filled with books stands along one wall. Also included is a small table that would easily lend itself to card or board games. Hanging over the center of the room is another old-fashioned chandelier.

In earlier times, families in residence would have been large and multi-generational. They would have relaxed in their sala while drinking tea or hot chocolate. Some would chat or play games like cards or billiards, if a table was available. Guests who brought news from afar or could tell interesting stories were especially valued. Other ways to pass the time included reading and sewing or embroidery. 

More equipal furniture is set along glass windows. The windows separate La Sala from the arcade walkway that overlooks the courtyard. The equipal furniture style dates back to pre-hispanic times. It was described by conquistadors under Hernán Cortéz who saw it used in the court of the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma. Equipal is still very popular throughout Mexico. 

Before the Revolution, the general population was largely illiterate. In contrast, elite families were highly educated and often spoke multiple languages. Children were privately tutored or attended  Church-run schools. As early as the 16th century, the Jesuits began to establish colleges and universities all over colonial Mexico. These institutions continued in operation even after the Jesuits themselves were expelled from Spanish territories in 1767. 

El Comedor (Dining Room)

Between La Sala and the back of the house is a long comedor. The Spanish word for dining room comes from the verb comer (to eat). The beautiful old table can seat eight and possibly more with an extension. A room like this was often used for private business or political gatherings as well as family dining. Since large, extended families could provide valuable connections beneficial to the family businesses, various relatives often occupied key positions in local institutions.

For example, in colonial times, a casona's owner might serve on the governing body of the local alhondiga, a government grain storage facility. The wheat grown on his hacienda would be purchased by the alhondiga and then be sold as flour to local bakers. A banking system didn't exist in colonial society, so a son or daughter might join a religious order through which loans could be obtained for the family businesses. A family member with a military commission might arrange the purchase of the hacienda's horses for the local garrison. 

An iron stove topped with teapots stands in one corner of the comedor. The old stove is for decorative purposes only and the cooking is done in a separate kitchen.

A porch just outside the comedor runs along the back of the house. The view includes the back garden and Tapalpa's wooded hills, with mountains rising in the distance.

Los Cuartos de Huéspedes (Guest rooms)

In addition to individual rooms, the casona has this suite. Three bedrooms open into this sitting room, which is warmed by a big stone fireplace, faced with an overstuffed couch and two comfortable chairs. Another lovely old chandelier provides light. Overseeing everything is large portrait of the Virgen de Guadalupe, Mexico's patron saint.

Some of the individual rooms are quite large. The furniture here appears to be of the Art Deco style from the early 20th century. In addition to single rooms like this one, there are also rooms with two or more beds to accommodate family groups.

This fireplace is typical of those found in each of the rooms. Tapalpa's altitude is 1,950m (6397ft) so the average temperature is cool, ranging from the high 60s F to the low 50s. A crackling fire can provide cheery warmth, especially during those months (June-October) when rain is frequent. 

This completes Part 3 of my Tapalpa Plateau series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below. If you leave a question, please be sure to include your email address so that I may respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim 

 

Tapalpa Plateau Part 2 of 6 : The 16th century Capilla la Purisima

 

Capilla la Purísima is the oldest church in Tapalpa. The 16th century Capilla (Chapel) is located directly behind the 20th century Templo de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe (Temple of Our Lady of Guadalupe), seen in the upper right of this photo. The rear of the Capilla can be reached through an alley to the right of the Templo, or by way of a gate located on Calle Ing. Luis Enrique Bracamontes between Calles Matamoros and Miguel Hidalgo. 

Parts of the original Capilla have been modified over the centuries with features of the 18th century Neo-Classic style. Some of these can be seen above in the 14 pilasters (non-load bearing columns) across the front and the finials on either side of the arch at the top of the facade. In spite of these changes, the Capilla retains much of the simplicity typical of its Franciscan founders.

Information about this Capilla is very sparse, but I will provide what I have been able to glean, along with information about the Franciscan Order. Two of its friars, Fray Martín de Coruña (also known as Martín de Jesus) and Fray Juan de Padilla, began evangelizing in the area of Tapalpa in 1531. For information about the pre-hispanic history of this area, please check out my posting on Tapalpa from a visit in 2010.

 

Hernán Cortéz greeting the Apostolic Twelve. In 1524, only two years after the fall of the Aztec Empire, a group of twelve Franciscan friars arrived in Nueva España. Among them was Fray Martín de Coruña. The Franciscans had been requested by Hernán Cortéz, the conqueror of the Aztecs. A man of high political intelligence, Cortéz recognized that the indigenous people could not be controlled for long at the point of a sword. A "spiritual conquest" was required to keep them submissive, so he asked the Franciscan Order for help.

The Apostolic Twelve quickly spread out, following in the paths of various conquistadors, including Alonso de Ávalos. In 1523, Avalos was sent by Cortéz to explore what is now southern Jalisco. He established the huge Provincia de Ávalos, which stretched from the South Shore of Lake Chapala down to Sayula and to the west of Tapalpa as far as Chiquilistlán. It was a rich area, with an exploitable population and full of minerals. Click here for a Google map of this area. (Mural above from the Franciscan convento at Ozumba)

A broad atrium spreads out in front of the Capilla's facade. The atrium was an important feature of these early churches because the local indigenous community was often much too large to conduct ceremonies in the chapel itself. Extending forward on either side of the atrium are single-story wings that typically would have been used for classrooms, work spaces, administrative offices, and living quarters for the friars. 

Fray Martín de Coruña began his evangelization in 1525, among the Puréchepa of Michoacan. During this time he wrote the Relación de Michoacan about their ceremonies, rites, population and government. After a few years, he turned his attention north to the Provincia de Ávalos, arriving at Tapalpa in 1531. He was accompanied by Fray Juan de Padilla and together they established a mission and built the first version of its Capilla. Later, Coruña  returned to Michoacan, where he died at Pátzcuaro in 1558.

Fray Juan de Padilla (1500-1542), co-founder of Tapalpa's mission. After an early career as a soldier, Francisco Juan de Padilla became a Franciscan friar and arrived in Nueva España in 1528, four years after the Apostolic Twelve. From 1529-31, Padilla served as army chaplain under Nuño de Guzman as that corrupt and savage conquistador tortured, murdered and enslaved his way across Michoacan, northwestern Jalisco and southern Sinaloa. (Photo from Legends of Kansas)

Guzman's activities were so atrocious that colonial authorities in Mexico City had him arrested and sent back in chains to Spain. Most sources gloss over this period of Padilla's life but some Catholic sources assert that he tried to moderate Guzman's abuses. Even if true, he was spectacularly unsuccessful. Padilla returned from the expedition in 1531 and spent most of the next 9 years establishing missions in the Provincia de Ávalos, including the one in Tapalpa.

An open corridor leads to the Capilla's rear. Along the right side is an entrance to the interior, the only access we had since the door of the facade was locked. The Capilla and its associated buildings were constructed with materials that include stone foundations, adobe brick walls covered with white plaster, and roofs covered with red terra cotta tiles. Features like door frames and pilasters are made either from wood or cantera, a soft, easily-worked volcanic rock.

In 1540, Padilla joined Francisco Coronado's famous expedition in search of the mythical Seven Cities of Cibola. Padilla and several other Franciscans accompanied the expedition through northern Mexico and into today's New Mexico. From there they marched through Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas, finally halting at the village of a people called the Quivira. These proved to be simple hunter-gatherers living in the vast emptiness of Kansas' plains. 

Discouraged, Coronado returned to Nueva España. However, Padilla and a handful of others stopped off in New Mexico in order to go back and evangelize the Quivira. This required a 1000-mile trek on foot, but Padilla and the others were not daunted and they were well-received by the Quivira. However, in 1544 Padilla decided to branch out to other villages. This angered the Quivera, who attacked the small group. To save the others, Padilla sacrificed himself, becoming the first Catholic martyr within the current borders of the United States. 

Rear of the Capilla and its campanario (bell tower). This is the view from the alley leading back from the Templo de Guadalupe. The corridor seen in the previous photo is just to the right of the Capilla. Some of the architectural features in this photo are of the 18th century Neo-Classic style, including the campanario and the pilasters along the wall. This back wall appears truncated, so I suspect that the Capilla once extended further back into the alley than it does currently.

The original mission buildings would have been much more rustic than the current Capilla. Early Franciscan missions were typically simple mud brick structures with thatched roofs. Rather than performing the physical work of construction themselves, the two friars would have directed indigenous workers recruited through the forced labor system called the encomienda. Between 1550 and 1555, the original buildings were replaced by the Capilla and its associated structures.  

The nave of La Purisima. Although internet sources say the Capilla is closed, it is clearly being used by some of the faithful at Tapalpa. The chapel's interior was very clean and the Neo-Classic altar is full of fresh flowers. The structure is a single rectangular nave, with a ceiling covered by wood beams. The pews could probably seat a congregation of three dozen or so. Capilla la Purisima is probably used only for special events, like small weddings or baptisms. 

The baptismal font is decorated in the 17th century Baroque style. However, I wanted more detail, so I sent the photo to Richard Perry, who is an expert on the religious architecture of the Spanish colonial period. He responded as follows:

"While this font has many traditional features: a shell like basin carved with foliage and winged angels, its clarity and sharp lines suggest a more recent origin, possibly based on an older model located somewhere in the vicinity. My two cents, Richard"

Rear of nave and the choir loft. Placing the choir behind and above the sanctuary was an innovation of the Baroque period of the 17th century. At that time, the men-and-boys-only choirs of previous centuries began to be replaced by mixed choirs of men and women. Such choirs grew out of the operatic music that became popular during this time. 

Up to the Baroque period, choirs had performed within the sanctuary area. However, mixed choirs created a problem because women were traditionally not allowed in the sanctuary during liturgical services. To solve the problem, choir lofts were created. 

Most of our group, standing in the atrium. From left to right are Lori, Jim, Julie and Lori's husband Jerry. A fifth member, Bette was off exploring another area and missed being included. The main gate to the Capilla compound is behind Lori. It faces out onto Calle Ing. Luis Enrique Bracamontes. 

These folks are part of the "hard core" of my Hacienda Hunters group. The were willing and eager to come out to explore the Tapalpa Plateau with me on a blustery day with bouts of chilly rain, just as they have braved scorching heat and other daunting conditions over the years. 

This completes Part 2 of my Tapalpa Plateau series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

Tapalpa Plateau Part 4 of 6: Templo San Antonio de Padua

Templo San Antoio de Padua is located in the Plaza Principal. This church was built by the Franciscans in the 17th century when their congregation outgrew the small Capilla de la Purisima seen in a previous posting of this series. Strolling along on the left are my friend Chuck and his dog Maddy. She passed away a while back and is sorely missed by Chuck and others who loved her, including me. 

No longer a functioning church, the Templo has been transformed into a small museum displaying a variety of religious objects from previous centuries. In this posting, I will show the external features of the church and explain some of the history and uses of the artifacts displayed inside.

Side entrance to the Templo. One rough way to gage the age of an historic structure in Mexico is to take a close look at the materials used in building it. While the interior of many churches (including this one) may have undergone numerous changes of style over the centuries, there are usually less of these kinds of alterations on the exterior. Two columns called pilasters frame this Templo doorway. They are made from a soft, easily-carved stone called cantera. 

Early 16th century colonial churches were small and made of adobe and thatch. By the 17th century, large structures with rough stone walls like the one above began to appear. Due to cost, blocks of stone shaped by masons were only used for corners, doors, or windows (again, see above). As the costs dropped, churches began to be constructed entirely from shaped stone blocks. From the end of the 18th century through the 20th, bricks of red clay became popular. 

Facade and main entrance. Four more pilasters topped with Doric capitals frame the entrance. Pilasters are non-load bearing and are used for decorative purposes only. The four small pyramidal structures along the top of the entrance are called finials. On either side of the door are niches which once contained statues of saints. The window above the doorway provides light to the elevated choir loft located in the rear of the nave.

The nave, as it was in 2015 before the museum was completed. The original architectural style was changed from Baroque to Neo-Classic, probably in the late 18th century. Baroque tends to cover every available surface with floral carvings, cherub faces, and other decorative elements. 

Neo-Classic incorporates elements of Greek and Roman architecture, such as the Corinthian-capped columns framing the wall niches and the altar area. Neo-Classic style reflects the Rationalism that came into fashion during the 18th century Enlightenment period.

The Templo's Museum in 2022

Painting of the Virgin of Guadalupe in a niche in the left front wall. The artist who created this in 1820 used gold leaf for highlights in this oil painting. The Virgin of Guadalupe is the Patron of Mexico and her image has often appeared on the banners of various armies marching into battle, beginning with the Independence War against Spain. 

Two bronze candlesticks stand behind a crucifix.  A small bronze statue of Jesus hangs from the wooden crucifix. The statue and its cross were created in the 18th century. There was no information about the candlesticks, but they may have been created about the same time. The sign indicated that the crucifix and its statue are still utilized during the rituals of the Holy Eucharist.

Censors of various sizes and a pewter cup. Censers like this contained burning incense during ceremonies. The small containers were swung on their chains to distribute the smoke.  The use of the cup is unclear, but it may have been for crushing the incense before it was placed in the censors.

Carved wooden cúpula. The function of this object was unclear, and the sign accompanying it only noted that it is a cúpula that was carved from wood in the 16th century. To find out more, I consulted Richard Perry, my expert on the religious artifacts and architecture of colonial Mexico. He suggested that it may be a cover for a baptismal font. Richard also said that the cúpula may have been incorrectly dated to the 16th century. Its Baroque style is from a later period, possibly in the 17th century.

Wooden base from the original altar. This is the only remnant of the original Baroque decoration of the church's interior, before it was remodeled in the Neo-Classic style. The accompanying sign states that this object was created in the 16th century and that there were traces of gold leaf on the floral carvings. Since the church was constructed in the 17th century and the floral design is typical of Baroque, the museum's dating of this object may also be in error.

Statue of the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception. The wooden statue is dated 1715. The Immaculate Conception does not refer to the Virgin Birth of Jesus. Instead it asserts that Mary herself was free from "original sin" when she herself was conceived. None of this appears in the Gospels and the concept was controversial for centuries. It did not become part of official Church doctrine until 1854.

Vestments worn by 18th century priests. These three garments are called capas pluviales. They are embroidered in gold and are from the 18th century. The clothing of Catholic priests evolved from that worn by people of the Roman world when the Church was founded. 

There was some dispute among early Church leaders about whether priests should wear clothing that distinguished them from members of their congregation. An early pope, Clement I, settled the issue in favor of special garb for those who served as priests.

More priestly vestments. These casullas (chasubles) are also from the 18th century. They are a kind of tunic that is worn over other garments. According to Catholic tradition, the casulla symbolizes the virtue of charity and the yoke of unselfish love.

Templo de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe

Templo de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe. The Temple of Our Lady of Guadalupe sits directly across from the entrance to the Templo de San Antonio de Padua. It was built entirely of red brick, without beams or masonry. Work started in 1950 and was completed in 1970. Although it is not unattractive, modern churches generally leave me cold architecturally. I simply find the older stuff much more interesting. 

The main nave. There are two more naves, one on either side. Damage to the 350-year-old Templo de San Antonio led to the construction of this church. It was paid for by money raised from local residents.

This completes Part 4 of my Tapalpa Plateau series. I hope you have enjoyed it and, if so, you will leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below. If you do leave a question, please include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

Tapalpa Plateau Part 5 of 6: Hacienda La Media Luna

The ruined casa grande of Hacienda la Media Luna (The Half Moon). This hacienda was once part of several large estates located on the Tapalpa Plateau that functioned until the first couple of decades of the 20th Century. Last July, I organized another of my Hacienda Hunts for a group of friends to visit the La Media Luna. Even though it was mid-summer, the chilly, blustery weather occasionally spattered us with cold rain. However, ours was a hardy group and we took it all in stride.

Hacienda La Media Luna was one of the settings in Pedro Páramo, a novel by Juan Rulfo. He has been acclaimed as Mexico's greatest author, even though this book and another book of short stories are the only major works he wrote. Rulfo invented the style of writing known as Magical Realism, which later inspired Colombian author Gabriel Garcia Marquez to write One Hundred Years of Solitude, another masterpiece. 

Where is ex-Hacienda la Media Luna? The site is 16.5km (10.3mi) southeast of the town of Tapalpa. The hacienda's casa grande (big house) and other ruined structures sit on a low rise overlooking the western tip of a lake called Laguna Grande. A small pueblo called La Lagunilla grew up around the ruins of the old hacienda. For specific directions with an interactive Google map, click here. 

The Tapalpa Plateau rises to about 2130m (7000ft). This altitude captures the moist air moving in from the Pacific Coast and gives the area a cool, misty, alpine feel. The gently rolling countryside is covered with pine forests and shallow lakes. These are interspersed with fields of maiz (corn), orchards, and pastures filled with sheep, cattle and horses. Tapalpa is the most important town on the plateau. The others tend to be small pueblos like La Lagunilla. 

La Casa Grande

View of the casa grande from its southeast corner. Several members of our party can be seen near the main entrance. The casa grande was once a two story structure although only the exterior walls of the second story remain. Running along the front of the structure you can see a line of holes where rafters extended out. These supported the roof of the arcade which once shaded the walkway underneath. The open doorway in the middle of the second floor probably provided access to a broad porch.

La Media Luna was founded about 250 years ago, during the latter half of the 18th century. Eventually, the hacienda became one of several in the area that were owned by Juan Rulfo's family. The ruined structure above was originally built in 1884 by his maternal grandmother. It is not clear whether Rulfo ever lived at La Media Luna, but his visits clearly impressed him enough for him to make it one of the key the settings of Pedro Páramo.

View of the capilla (chapel) along the arcade walkway. Like many of the haciendas I have visited, this one has a capilla attached to one end of the casa grande. The structure shown above is not the original capilla, which later become the church of the local community, following the breakup of the hacienda. Over time, however, the old capilla deteriorated and was replaced in 1982 by the one seen above. 

La Media Luna and its casa grande may have been destroyed during the Cristero War (1926-29), one of the aftershocks of the Mexican Revolution (1910-17). Another possibility for its demise may have been the land reform carried out between 1917 and the late 1930s. This process was also accompanied by considerable violence. Today, the ruins stand as a lonely reminder of a vanished era, with only occasional visits from hacienda enthusiasts like those in my group.

Photographing the carriage gate. I am the photographer shown above. To the left is the casa grande and to the right is the beginning of the capilla structure. Like most of the carriage gates of Mexico's old haciendas, this one leads into an interior courtyard where the horse-drawn vehicles were once loaded and unloaded. (Photo by Jerry Brown)

Juan Nepomuceno Carlos Pérez Rulfo Vizcaíno was born in 1917, at the Hacienda de Apulco. That estate was owned at the time by his maternal grandfather, Carlos Vizcaíno Vargas. It is located approximately 54km (34mi) southwest of Hacienda La Media Luna. The casa grande of Hacienda de Apulco can still be found in the middle of the modern-day pueblo of Apulco. However, the old structure has been occupied by the Monasterio de la Virgen de la Paz for the last 25 years. 

Main entrance of the casa grande. I concluded that this was the main entrance from its size and from the steps leading up to its double wooden doors. The other doors along the hacienda's front have smaller doors and no steps. A large wood beam--almost certainly an original feature--forms the lintel of the door. 

The estates of Apulco and La Media Luna were once part of a constellation of haciendas that surrounded the town of San Gabriel, where Rulfo's family moved when he was two years old. The town became the other major setting in Pedro Páramo.  However, in his book, the author renamed San Gabriel, calling it Comala. This has caused much confusion, because there is a real town of Comala, which is a Pueblo Magico located just outside the city of Colima. 

View into the casa grande from an entrance along the arcade. It is likely that this room was the comedor (dining room). I concluded this because of a second door  connects to a rear room which was probably one of the two cocinas (kitchens) that were once part of the structure. Why two? Not a clue. Notice the framing of the doorway, which is made from dressed cantera stone. The walls surrounding it are adobe brick covered by plaster. 

Rulfo's stories are set between the beginning of the Mexican Revolution and the late 1930s, a violent and chaotic period. At an early age, the author was himself directly affected by the violence. In June 1923, his father Juan Nepomuceno Pérez Rulfo (known as "Cheno") was shot in the back of the head by Guadalupe Nava over a land dispute. Not long after, two of Rulfo's uncles were also murdered.

In 1953, Rulfo wrote a book of short stories called El Plano en Llamas (The Plain in Flames), which drew its title from his father's tragic death. As a six-year-old boy, little Juan had stood in the darkness at Hacienda Telcampana (just south of San Gabriel) while he watched the approach from afar of the flaming torches held by the escort of the cart carrying his father's body. Thirty years later, when titling his book of stories, this searing memory was still powerful.

Interior of a rear room, possibly a bedroom. The room is now overgrown with brush. The walls are made from adobe bricks, which were once covered by layers of plaster. Adobe is made from mud, with straw as a binder. This form of construction was favored by many of those who built Mexico's rural haciendas because the materials could be obtained locally and labor was cheap. 

After his father's death, Rulfo and his mother María continued to live in San Gabriel, where he attended a local religious school for the next three years. Rulfo's life changed again in 1927, when his mother died and then the school closed due to the chaos of the Cristero War. He was left an orphan, but his grandmother took him to live in Guadalajara where he spent the rest of his childhood and youth. However, many of the places and personal names in Rulfo's writing reflect his early life in San Gabriel.

Thick layers of plaster still cover the adobe walls of this room. This is the cocina connected to the comedor seen previously. Above the rafter holes are the walls of a 2nd floor room, which was probably a bedroom. The opening in the wall is a window which has become a door by the addition of a stack of bricks used as a stair. Through this opening, you can see part of the courtyard.

Rulfo continued his schooling in Guadalajara and graduated with a degree in bookkeeping, although he never practiced that profession. He wanted to attend the University of Guadalajara, but was unable to do so because of a labor strike and a lack of preparation on his part. Next, he moved to Mexico City, where he briefly attended the National Military Academy, but left after only three months. 

Following that, Rulfo sought a law degree at the National Autonomous University but, again, nothing came of it. However, he was able to audit courses in literature at the university while working as an immigration agent. This informal educational effort was the beginning of his literary career. He began writing and, in 1944, co-founded a literary journal call Pan (Bread).

View from the courtyard into a possible living room. The rough wooden lintel over the door opening above, as well as the wooden door across the room, are probably original features of the casa grande's 1884 construction. Adobe is one of the earliest construction materials in the history of human architecture and structures built with it can survive for centuries. 

After a few years working as an immigration agent, Rulfo took a job as a sales agent for a private company. Both jobs enabled him to travel widely in Mexico and deepened his understanding of the country. Rulfo then landed a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship at the Centro Mexicano Escritores (Mexican Writers' Center). It was during this two-year period that he wrote both El Plano en Llamas and Pedro Páramo, published in 1953 and 1955, respectively. 

Corner of the back wall of the casa grande. The niche in the wall probably once contained a religious statue, most likely one of the many versions of the Virgin Mary. Above the niche is the truncated remains of another old wooden lintel. This shot was taken from the passageway leading from the carriage entrance to the courtyard.

Although he is most famous for the two great works of literature he published in the early 1950s, Juan Rulfo was also involved in other artistic work, including screenwriting and photography. From 1962 until his death in 1986, he was an editor for the National Institute for Indigenous People. Some of Rulfo's other literary work has been published posthumously, but none of it has approached the fame of his earlier masterpieces. 

La Capilla de la Virgen de Guadalupe

View of the capilla from the rear. The adobe wall to its right is part of an old bodega (storage building). The hacienda system was broken up during the two decades that followed the end of the Revolution. The re-distribution of lands to campesinos and indigenous villages often meant that the former hacendados (owners) could no longer afford to maintain their casas grandes and other structures. 

Often such buildings were simply abandoned and then cannibalized by a hacienda's former workers for materials to build homes and small shops. Many of the pueblos that now dot the countryside grew up around the ruins of old haciendas. Quite often, the only structure to remain intact was the capilla, because it was maintained by the local people as their church. Over time, an old capilla might be replaced because of deterioration, as was the case in La Lagunilla.

The front of the bodega, the capilla's porch and an atrial cross. An open area directly in front of a church, bordered by a low wall, is called an atrium. A stand-alone crucifix found in this area is called an atrial cross. These spaces were used for religious activities that were too large to be conducted inside the church itself. In the earliest times, this included evangelization and mass conversions of the native people.

In Juan Rulfo's novel, the owner of Hacienda La Media Luna was a man called Pedro Páramo. He ruled over his hacienda and the surrounding region like a feudal baron of the medieval era.  Páramo regularly exercised le droit de seigneur (the right of the lord) to have sex with any woman who caught his fancy. The population of Comala (San Gabriel) was thus full of his illegitimate offspring.

Front view of the atrial cross. It is covered with symbols representing the Passion of Christ (the crucifixion events). Since the illiteracy rate in pre-Revolution Mexico was high, the Church went to great lengths to create murals, images, and other visible symbols. Richard Perry, an expert on old Mexican religious architecture, told me that the cross is probably not from an earlier era but may be a 20th century copy of an older version located elsewhere.

In the novel:

While Pedro Páramo relentlessly pursued his lustful adventures, his true love was his childhood sweetheart, Susana San Juan. However, she had married another man and was thus unavailable to him for many years. After she was widowed and returned to Comala, Páramo was finally able to marry her. However, Susana's obsession with  her dead husband led to her into insanity, leaving him once again unfulfilled. While this is one of the central ironies of the book, the story itself begins long after Páramo's death.

The altar of the capilla is devoted to the Virgin of Guadalupe. She is the Patroness of Mexico and its poor and indigenous people. The majority of Catholic churches I have visited in Mexico are either devoted to the Virgin of Guadalupe, or at least have a side chapel or special altar set aside for her. She was the first version of the Virgin to appear in colonial Nueva España, and was unusual because she was dark skinned and spoke Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec man who first encountered her.

In the novel:

Pedro Páramo had a son named Juan Preciado by a woman named Dolores. At the story's beginning, Juan follows the deathbed advice of Dolores to go to Comala in search of his father. Upon his arrival, he finds that Pedro died long ago and that the town is mostly deserted except for the ghosts of its former inhabitants. From these apparitions, we learn the brutal and violent history of Páramo family. 

A message printed on a rough sack hangs on the wall next to the altar. The Spanish printing translates "Consecrated  by the (?) Señor Dr. D. Pedro Loza, 1878". Why this humble sack should be given such an elaborate frame and place of honor is a complete mystery to me, as is the identity of Sr. Dr. D. Pedro Loza. The date on the sack is six years before Rulfo's grandmother built the casa grande at La Media Luna and 104 years before the capilla's re-construction. 

In the novel:

Miguel Páramo, was the father of Pedro and grandfather of Juan Preciado. Miguel was a violent man involved in rape and murder. Upon Miguel's death Juan's father Pedro inherited La Media Luna, along with Miguel's penchant for violence. When Pedro's beloved Susana returned to Comala, Pedro decided to win her favor by secretly murdering her father and then offering to comfort her. He succeeded in marrying her, but she later descended into madness and died.

A spiral staircase leads up the steeple to the campanario (belfry). A man who was repairing the capilla kindly retrieved a key to let us in. I asked if we could climb to the campanario and he agreed, but only after warning us to be careful. I also quizzed him about the hacienda and its casa grande, but he was from another town and could provide little information beyond what I already knew.

In the novel:

When Susana died, Pedro was devastated and decided to hold a grand funeral for her. However, the people of Comala decided not to attend. This enraged Pedro and he took revenge on them by withholding food, causing them to starve en masse. Thus, they became the ghosts from whom we learn much of the story.

One of the belfry's several bells. At the bottom of the photo, you can see part of the casco wall that surrounds the chief buildings of the hacienda. Casco translates as "helmet" in Spanish. The walls of a casco protect the casa grande, bodega, and stables, which together form the nerve center of the hacienda. 

In the novel:

One of the first of Comala's inhabitants that Juan encounters is Abundio, his half-brother by one of Pedro's many conquests. Through him, Juan learns how their father met his own violent end. When Abundio's wife had died, he went to his father for help in paying for her funeral. However, Pedro refused and Abundio's anger was such that he murdered his own father. Throughout the novel, the themes of murder and revenge reflect the violent and chaotic times of Rulfo's childhood.

A horse grazes in one of the pastures enclosed by the casco wall. The casa grande and capilla are visible in the distance. This concludes Part 5 of my series on the Tapalpa Plateau. If you enjoyed it and have any thoughts or questions, please leave them in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim