Cobá Part 7: The great Ixmoja pyramid of Grupo Nohoch Mul

The Ixmoja pyramid is the tallest Maya structure in northern Yucatan. The height of the structure is 40m (131.2ft). In addition, Ixmoja stands on a small rise of about 6m (19.6ft), which gives it an extra bit of altitude. The tiny figures of tourists that you can see on the main staircase provide a sense of scale. Ixmoja is part of the Grupo Nohoch Mul, which includes several other structures. Built in stages during the Late Classic and Early Post Classic eras, Ixmoja was lost in the jungle for a thousand years until archeologists visited Cobá in the 19th century. 

In this posting, I'll show you the pyramid and tell you about an important discovery in 2024. Near Ixmoja, an archeologist stumbled--almost literally--across the Foundation Rock, a huge stone covered with hieroglyphs. While they have not been completely deciphered, some of the glyphs yielded fascinating new information about Cobá's Classic-era dynasty. They revealed a previously unknown female monarch named Ix Ch'ak Ch'een. She was  very powerful and established Cobá as a major player in the Maya world. (Photo from Travel Wonders)

Overview

Site map showing Grupo Nohoch Mul and the Ixmoja pyramid. The Nohoch Mul group is in the upper right. The pyramid is at the end of the purple trail and is marked Nohoch Mul, which means "Big Mound". Although the Ixmoja pyramid is sometimes called by that name, Nohoch Mul is actually the name for a whole group of structures. 

In addition to Ixmoja, the group includes a huge platform northeast of the pyramid called C-7. The platform is 17m (56ft) high, 125m (410ft) wide, and 115m (377ft) deep. When we visited, the platform was obscured by the thick jungle, so I didn't photograph it or even know it was there. West of the pyramid are Structures 10 and 12, supporting Stelae 20 and 21, respectively. These structures and their stelae were covered in Part 6.

The Foundation Rock. This large stone plaque was discovered inadvertently in November of 2024 by archeologist Ana Calderón while she was touring Grupo Nochoh Mul. The Foundation Rock is located about 152m (500ft) behind the Ixmoja pyramid, under a stairwell and beside a natural waterhole. While walking by, Calderón noticed a large stone that was literally covered with hieroglyphs, many of which seemed readable. This last was very important. Although Cobá probably has more hieroglyphs than any other site in Yucatan, they were carved into limestone of poor quality and have mostly become indecipherable. 

The stone monument measures 4.2m x 3.4m (14ft x 11ft) and contains 123 glyphs. Archeologists named it the Foundation Rock because it is, in effect, the founding document of a powerful, Early Classic era dynasty in northeast Yucatan. The dynasty had originally been established at Cobá in 494 AD by a ruler named Juunpiktook. He had gained his throne with the aid of the Kaan (Snake) Dynasty, a foreign power based in Dzibanche in southern Yucatan. Because of this, Cobá at first functioned as a vassal of the Kaan and the authority Juunpiktook and his early successors didn't extend much beyond the city itself. 

The only known image of Ix Ch'ak Ch'een appears on Stela 26. The stela is located in Grupo D and her name is mentioned in its glyphs. Ix is a female prefix, roughly meaning "Lady". Ch'ak Ch'een means "Red Rainbow". The image on Stela 26 differs from most of the others at Cobá. The figure faces left, rather than right, doesn't hold the long scepter of office, and has no captives at its feet. The sex of the image was determined by the ankle-length huipil (dress), a garment that Maya men never wore. Ix Ch'ak Ch'een was the first woman to rule Cobá, not as the consort of a male ruler but as a monarch in her own right.

She became Cobá's queen on an unknown date in the middle of the 6th century AD, about 60 years after Juunpiktook took the throne. There were probably 2-3 successors between his death and when she became the ruler. However, their names and the dates of their rule are uncertain. What the Foundation Rock tells us is that Ix Ch'ak Ch'een became Cobá's first Kaloomté in 569 AD. Kaloomté  ("Supreme Warrior") was the Maya world's highest rank. It was reserved for rulers of a whole region, not just a city. So, Ix Ch'ak Ch'een was both the first female ruler of Cobá and later became the city's first kaloomté. 

The pyramid's west and east sides 

View of the west side of the Ixmoja pyramid. Beside the main staircase stands a smaller one, with a palapa-covered stela at its base. The stela was created during the Classic era, but was moved from elsewhere in Cobá and re-erected here during the Post Classic. No clear images, glyphs, or dates are visible on the stela's broken pieces. 

There are at least 17 steps on the west-side staircase and the first four are broader than the rest. This fact, along with the sheered-off appearance of the staircase's west side suggest a collapse at some time in the past. At the top of this staircase are the remains of a small temple which contains Stela 30.

One of the documented accomplishments of Ix Ch'ak Ch'een was the construction of Ball Court 2 in Grupo D. The significance of this is hard to overstate, because the ball game was central to Maya religious, political, and social life. Hieroglyphic inscriptions on the ball court's Panel 7 state that she dedicated the court in 573 AD. Another woman, Ix Che'enal, became kaloomté in 573, so Ix Ch'a Ch'een must have died sometime that same year.

A small ruined temple occupies a platform at the top of the west-side staircase. This photo was taken from the main staircase. The temple's single room was once covered by a vaulted stone roof. The entrance was between the two pillars. Stela 30 rests against the wall at the rear of the temple and is protected by a small palapa. The stela is broken and the side facing out shows the lower part of a standing figure. The side facing the wall contains the surviving glyphs, one of which is the name Ix Ch'ak Ch'een Yopaat. This is one of several variations of the powerful queen's name that have been found on different monuments.

Artifacts were found in and around the temple. These included stone trays called metates, used for grinding maiz. Also present were charred bone fragments from deer and wild boar called jabali. These items indicate that the temple was used for ceremonial activity related to fertility because Maya codices (hieroglyphs on paper) show fertility offerings of venison on metates. Found under the floor, near the base of Stela 30, were beads of jade, coral, and shell pectorals. Ceramic fragments within the temple were from the Puuc area (northwest Yucatan). This indicates they were left during the Post Classic period. 

The east side of Ixmoja also contains structures, but in a more ruined condition. At the base, a three-step staircase leads up to a temple with a single room. It once had a vaulted roof, supported by two pillars. Along the rear wall of the temple is a long bench. Similar to the temple on the west side, ceramic fragments of offerings from the Puuc region were found. These included a slate-ware plate fragment containing the date 810 AD. This is one of the latest dates ever found at Cobá. It places the offering during the transition between the Late Classic and the Early Post Classic periods.

Ancient Maya rulers gained legitimacy not just with military power, but through their association with the gods. The glyphic inscriptions on the Foundation Rock closely connect Ix Ch'ak Ch'een with the deities who protected Cobá. One variation of her name includes the title K'awiil. This was a deity related to lightning, the serpent witz (associated with water), and royal lineage. The Foundation Rock's glyphs also connect her with Bolon Tz'akab Ajaw ("Lord of Innumerable Generations"). One of the key roles of a Maya monarch was to act as an intermediary between the gods and the people.

 The Main Staircase

The main staircase rises steeply. without landings. It is daunting enough to climb this seemingly unending set of stairs, but the return is especially precarious. Some people choose to come down on their butts, while clinging to a rope. I'm not particularly afraid of heights, but this staircase is in a class of its own. In 2019, the staircase was closed to tourists and in 2021 work was begun on a wooden staircase constructed up the middle. Finally, in 2025, the new staircase was opened to the public. I suppose it was necessary for safety, but I'm glad I got to climb Ixmoja the old fashioned way.

Like many other temples and pyramids throughout Mesoamerica, Ixmoja was built in stages. In 2016 archeologists discovered an earlier pyramid inside it that is about 10m (32.8ft) tall. They were able to detect this earlier structure with a non-invasive technology called tri-dimensional electric resistivity tomography. This, along with other new technologies, have revolutionized archeology. One of these, called Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging), can quickly scan huge areas of jungle from the air, revealing otherwise invisible structures. At Cobá, Lidar has been used to detect structures along the sacbeob.

Nearing the top, some people scramble up while others sidestep or crawl down. The first mention of Cobá' was made in a mid-19th century report by John Stephens and Frederick Catherwood. They heard about the city but couldn't reach it because of its remoteness. The first non-Maya to actually visit was Juan Peón Contreras Elizalde, director of the Yucatan Museum. He made the arduous journey through the jungle in 1882. Nine years later, in 1891, an Austrian explorer named Teobert Maler stopped for two days, but left quickly because of the Caste War. Thirty-five years passed before an American, Thomas Gann, visited in 1926. 

Gann's visit triggered a series of eight expeditions by the Carnegie Institution of Washington (CIW). Between 1926 and 1932, the CIW thoroughly explored and mapped the site. Over the next 40 years, other archeologists briefly stopped and reported their observations about the sacbeob and stelae they found. In 1972, the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Antropologia y Historia (INAH) began an intensive program of investigation and restoration. During this same period, the first modern road was built to the site. Even 144 years after the first visit, new discoveries continue to be made, the most recent being the Foundation Rock in 2024.

Temple of the Diving God

The Temple of the Diving God stands on the platform at the top of Ixmoja. The temple bears a strong resemblance to temples at Tulum and other Caribbean coastal sites of the Post Classic era. There is one room, entered through a single door. Unfortunately a barrier prevented me from accessing the interior. There were originally three niches across the top level, but the one on the far left appears to have broken off with a section of the roof. Each of the remaining niches contains a stucco statue of Ah Muzen Cab, a deity that archeologists call the Diving (or Descending) God because of how he is always portrayed. 

In addition to building Ball Court 2, Ix Ch'ak Ch'een was also responsible for construction of some of Cobá's 50+ sacbeob ("White Roads"). These not only tied the disparate parts of the city into a coherent whole, but they also connected Cobá with outlying areas. This road network was crucial in the development of the city as an economic, political, and military powerhouse. It was the extension of her power over a whole region that allowed Ix Ch'ak Ch'een to become the first of Cobá's rulers to achieve the title of kaloomté.

Ah Muzen Cab is always shown in an upside-down posture. His head is at the bottom and his legs and feet point upward. The stucco is too worn to see much of his arms. A similar statue occupies the other niche. This depiction led archeologists to dub him the "Diving God". Ah Muzen Cab is the protector of bees and beekeepers. One of Cobá's specialties was the production of honey for domestic use and for export. Hives of the Melipona becheii and Melipona yucatanica species of stingless bees were kept for these purposes. Ah Muzen Cab was revered, not only at Cobá, but also at Tulum and the other coastal cities. 

By becoming the kaloomté, Cobá's first female ruler elevated herself from the role of vassal or subordinate ally. This gave her greater importance in the eyes the rulers of other powerful cities like Calakmul and Tikal. During the Classic era, their military and political resources probably still exceeded that of Cobá. However, Ix Ch'ak Ch'een had established herself and her dynastic successors as a force that had to be reckoned with. The Foundation Rock also mentions an important, but undefined, relationship between her and Sky Witness, the powerful ruler of Dzibanche who decisively defeated Tikal in 562 AD.

The perilous climb down

Visitors to the top of Ixmoja gingerly pick their way down. I stood on the platform for a while, both to enjoy the view and to steel myself for the climb down. Each step must be chosen carefully. Over the years, there have been numerous falls on Mexico's pyramids, including this one. These have sometimes resulted in injuries or even death. The ancient steps are smooth and can be slippery. Those who climb in the mountains know that the most dangerous part is always coming down. You are tired, eager to get to the bottom, and gravity works against you. Once you start to fall, your momentum can make recovery impossible.

This completes Part 7 of my Cobá series. I hope you enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely fashion.

Hasta luego, Jim

Cobá Part 6: The great market at Plaza A, the Xaibé pyramid, and Stelae 20 and 21.

What did a pre-hispanic market look like? There are no known Classic or Post-Classic- era depictions of a market at Cobá. However, a city of 50,000 must have had a least one and probably several. The mural above shows a market in pre-hispanic Tlaxcala, in central Mexico. How it looked and functioned would have been quite similar to a market in Cobá, or other cities in the Maya world. As a matter of fact, it is similar in many respects to the Wednesday tianguis (street market) in Ajijic, where I live. The word for "market" or "where one buys or sells" is k'iwik in the Yucatec Maya language.

In this posting, I'll focus on Plaza A, where archeologists believe Cobá's main market was held. An important structure in the plaza is the Xaibé pyramid. This temple may have been used for rituals and ceremonies by the merchants and traders. Along with my explanation of the market and how it functioned, I'll show some ancient murals from the Acropolis market at the Maya city of Calakmul. It was contemporary with Cobá and the two cities had many political and cultural connections. (The photo above is from a spectacular set of murals by Desiderio Hernández Xochitiotzin at the Palacio Gobierno in Tlaxcala)

Overview

Plaza A is located in an area where Grupo D and Grupo Nohoch Mul overlap. The plaza  is a rectangle surrounded on all four sides by long slender structures. The Xaibé pyramid is the small square in the plaza's southeast corner. Standing between the plaza and the main Nohoch Mul ruins are Structures 10 and 12, which contain Stelae 20 and 21 respectively. I will show you these at the end of this posting. The inset map on the lower right shows Cobá's network of sacbeob (plural of sacbe, which means "white road").

Plaza A was originally quite large, but today much of it has been reclaimed by the jungle. The structures which border it, except for the pyramid, are largely un-excavated. The plaza covers an area of 26,000 sq meters (2.6 hectares). The surface is almost completely flat, with a variation of only 30cm. These features would have made it ideal for a large market capable of handling thousands of people and many booths. No permanent market structures have been discovered, so they must have been made of perishable materials or were erected periodically on a temporary basis. 

Remains of Sacbe #4. The broken surface above is the limestone stucco paving that formed the top layer of the sacbe. See Part 1 for a description of how they were built and the role they played in Cobá's success in the ancient world. Five sacbeob terminate at Plaza A. These include Sacbe #1, #4, #6, #7,and #8. Sacbe #1 is by far the longest. It runs 100km (62mi) from Plaza A all the way to Yaxuna, just south of Chichen Itza. This makes it one of the longest "white roads" in Yucatan. The people of Yaxuna manufactured pottery, which was carried by porters down Sacbe #1 to the Cobá market.

A porter trudges along, using a tumpline to carry a large ceramic pot. He is clothed only with a loincloth and high-backed sandals. In his right hand he holds a walking staff to support himself. The tumpline that passes across the porter's forehead extends back to support a large ceramic pot. His left hand reaches up to hold the tumpline in place. I have observed Mexicans using this ancient method and it can still be seen in cultures world-wide.

The Yucatec Maya term for the long distance merchant-traders who employed porters like this was pplom yok. 

A woven fiber base helps support the large pot on the porter's back. The pot may be empty, but probably is not. Many of the murals on the walls of Calakmul's Ch'iik Naahb market  involve foods like atole, a thick drink made from maiz (corn). Most likely, the pot contains dried kernels of maiz. Perched on the rim of the pot is a creature that archeologists believe is either a pet or a mythical image. (Photo is from my posting on the Ch'iik Naahb murals at Calakmul)

The Atole Woman. Just behind the woman in the diaphanous blue dress is a vertical set of glyphs. They are a caption that identifies her as "Atole Woman". This pplom (merchant) place a pot on the head of the kneeling woman, or perhaps reaches up to retrieve it. A series of market scenes cover the walls of the Ch'iik Naahb Acropolis. Each of the scenes has a short caption labeling what is clearly commercial activity. Behind the kneeling woman is a seated man drinking from a large bowl of atole, no doubt a satisfied customer. Another man, this time behind the Atole Woman, prepares more atole. (Photo from Ch'iik Naabh murals)

Archeologists use several methods to identify ancient markets. One way looks at features that provide efficiency in exchanges. Another examines how goods are distributed. Still another analyzes the logistics of moving goods from producers to consumers. At Cobá, archeologists geochemically examined soil samples from Plaza A. Their analysis showed high levels of phosphorous and trace elements typical of the products that were present and activities that occurred in an ancient market. This, along with the intersection of so many sacbeob at the plaza, provides convincing evidence that Plaza A was Cobá's main market.

The shape of the Xaibé pyramid is unique in Cobá. The limestone pyramid has four levels, with a single staircase leading to the top. Each step is high and very narrow. The 61 degree slope of the staircase is extremely steep. Xaibé has a square base with rounded corners and is 14m (46ft) high. Each side of its base is 21m (69ft) long. The fourth level is a solid stone cone. By contrast, other pyramids at Cobá have flat platforms on top that contain rectangular temples. The pyramid was given the Maya Yucatec name Xaibé ("crossroads") because it was built near the intersection of so many sacbeob. 

Before they determined that Plaza A was a major market site, the function of the pyramid had long puzzled archeologists. Some thought it was an observatory, like the one at Chichen Itza, and many tourist publications still describe it that way. However, it is now believed that the pyramid was used for rituals by merchants and traders upon arriving or departing Cobá. At the bottom of the stairs is a very weathered 9th century stela. Offerings found around it include a stone serpent sculpture, shell pendants, small red shell plaques, and fragments of shell and jade. This begs the question: "to whom were these offerings made?"

In the Classic era, "God L" was the deity of merchants and traders. Archeologists have dubbed him God L because they haven't yet deciphered a name for him. I photographed this mural in the ruins of Cacaxtla, in central Mexico. During the Post-Classic period, he was called Ek Chuah. God L wears a cape and a hood made from a bear's head. The top half of his face is painted green. He is obviously a rich god, because he is adorned with jade jewelry around his neck and on his wrists. His right hand holds a short stick or wand. Sitting on his forearm is an object that looks like a fox head on top of quadruple scoop of ice cream.

To me, the most interesting part of this image is God L's pack, which is propped up by his walking staff. Strapped to the pack are various trade goods, including a pot containing a leafy green plant. Perched on the back of the pack is the same strange creature seen previously, sitting on the porter's pot. This may have been a protective totem for those involved in long-distance trade. In the Maya world, as well as throughout Mesoamerica, trade was extremely important. Cities astride important routes grew rich. Wars were fought to control them. It is no wonder that merchants and traders were entitled to their own god.

Structure 10 and Stela 20

Stela 20 stands on the first step of Structure 10's staircase. On the platform atop the broad staircase is a small, rectangular, two-room temple. Both the structure and its stela were created near the end of the Classic era. The stela contains two dates. One is January 16, 773 AD, the accession of Cobá's last known ruler, the Kaloomté Chan K'inich. It is significant that the wording about his accession does not say he "fastened the headband", the phrase used for centuries when someone became a kaloomté (king of kings). Instead, the new ruler was simply "seated", suggesting a drop in the status of both the office and the city.

The stela's other date is November 30, 780 AD, which marked the end of an important periodic cycle in the Maya calendar. This is the last recorded date at Cobá. The fact that no later dates have been found does not mean that, following 780, Cobá was without a ruler or became abandoned. No one knows when Chan K'inich died, or who his successor(s) might have been. The Classic era was exemplified by monuments like Stela 20. The fact that no stelae or other inscriptions with names and dates have been found means that the Classic era had ended. Cobá's population was declining and the city's importance was fading.

Drawing of the images and glyphs on Stela 20. This stela is the best preserved of the 34 yet discovered at Cobá, probably because it is also the latest. Kaloomté Chan K'inich stands in the traditional posture, dressed in the finery of a ruler. He carries the large, elaborate scepter that signifies his rulership, while standing on the backs of two bound captives. Two other captives, also bound, kneel on either side of his feet. During the 300 years that the Classic-era Cobá dynasty lasted, nearly all of the rulers displayed on stelae are shown with captives at their feet.

This was a propaganda device, adopted centuries before. By using the images of captives, Chan K'inich proclaims his prowess as Supreme Warrior. This imitates the stelae erected by Calakmul's powerful Kaan Dynasty rulers. Cobá had long maintained a close political and military alliance with the Kaan. In fact, there is evidence that Juunpiktok, who founded Cobá's dynasty in 494 AD, came to power with the aid of the Kaan (then based in Dzibanche). However, 44 years before this stela was erected, the Kaan Dynasty had been defeated and eradicated in 736 AD by Tikal. Thus, Chan K'inich's boast rings a bit hollow.

 

Structure C-12 and Stela 21

Structure 12 is a low, two-level platform with an internal chamber. Stela 21 was placed in front of the chamber's entrance, possibly as a way to seal it. The structure and its stela are located not far from Structure 10 and the Ixmoja pyramid. For a time, archeologists thought that the internal chamber had been a tomb. However, there were no human remains or grave good, only a small number of offerings. Structure 12 and Stela 21 were found during a 1930 archeological expedition. 

There are several possible reasons why the entrance to the chamber was sealed. The Maya believed that buildings and monuments possessed a divine "soul-like" essence. When a structure was no longer in use, it would be ritually "killed" or deactivated. Thus, the stela would have formed a lid to contain the structure's sacred energy. Alternatively, the sealing could have been an attempt to protect the offerings left inside. Finally, the placement of the stela could have signified a change from active use of the structure to its becoming a static monument to a past ruler.

Drawing of Stela 21. The heavily worn stela has carvings only on one side.  It stands 1.5m (4.9ft) tall and 0.71m (2.3ft) wide. The image is of a male ruler with a bound captive seated crosslegged on either side of his feet. The ruler wears high-backed sandals and has a long device hanging down from his neck. At the end of this device is a horizontal bar with three tubular beads extending from each end. Decorations like this were worn by rulers when they dressed as warriors and intended to take captives. 

The glyphs on the upper left portion of the stela's face are unreadable, so we don't know the name of the ruler or any dates. Like so many other stelae at Cobá, it is likely that Stela 21 was originally erected elsewhere in the city during the Classic era. Later, during the Post Classic, Structure 12 would have been erected and the stela moved to its current positions. This was a way of honoring the past glory of Cobá during an anxious period of decline and decay.

This completes Part 6 of my Cobá series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below. If you leave a question, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

Cobá Part 5- Ball Court 2 in Grupo D

 

Classic-era statue of a Maya ball player. The player is crouched on one knee, ready to use his upper arm or shoulder to receive the ball and propel it back down the field. The sculptor managed to convey the player's sense of tension as he poised for action. However, the sculptor exaggerated--probably for effect--the protective gear around his mid-section. There is no way a ball player dressed like this could have maintained the necessary speed and agility the game required. 

Part 3 of this series covered Grupo Cobá's Ball Court 1 and explained how the game was played and its deep social, political, and religious meanings. In this posting I will focus on Ball Court 2 in Grupo D, the largest and most important court at Cobá. In addition to its size, Ball Court 2 is important because of who built it and when. It is also significant for the large hieroglyph panel set into the court's sloping wall. This panel contains information about several key rulers in Cobá's Early Classic history.

Overview

Site map of Cobá showing the location of Ball Court 2.  Grupo D is located between Grupo Cobá on the west and Grupo Nohoch Mul on the east. Sacbe #4, one of Cobá's internal "white roads", runs between these two groups of structures. Ball Court 2 is located near the eastern end of Sacbe #4, where it is marked Juego de Pelota ("Ball Game"). Ball Court 1, also labeled as Juego de Pelota is located in Grupo Cobá, near the western end of Sacbe #4. To find the Cobá archeological zone in Yucatan, see Part 1 of this series.

The playing field

View of the Ball Court, looking east. Its structure is similar to Ball Court 1, with a relatively narrow alley running between two sloping walls. Each wall is topped by a stone ring about half-way down the court. Tourists in the alley provide a sense of scale. I haven't been able to determine the dimensions of this court, except that it is larger than Ball Court 1. On the top of each side of the court are are multiple rooms with rectangular columns. These were the  viewing areas set aside for the elite spectators of Cobá and those of the visiting team. These viewing areas were ancient versions of the "skyboxes" in modern stadiums.

Ball Court 2 was built by Ix Ch'ak Cheen, one of several powerful women who ruled Cobá during the Classic era. She was the first of Cobá's rulers to be awarded the title of kaloomte' ("Supreme Warrior" or "King of Kings"). This meant that her rule extended beyond Cobá to a broader realm of towns and cities. The achievement of this title was a statement that Cobá had emerged as a major player in the ancient Maya world. Recently, a large panel was discovered in another part of Cobá. Its glyphs indicate that Ix Ch'ak Cheen was connected to Ut Chanal of Dzibanche's Kaaan Dynasty, a major Maya power. 

Field marker in the alley between the sloping walls. This one can be found in the middle of the western end of the alley (see previous photo, lower right). Inside the circle is a figure that has been variously described as a decapitated man, a jaguar, or a squirrel. The function of the marker in the game is unclear. 

A weather-worn stone skull is situated in the center of the alley. In the photo showing the playing field, this marker is half-way down the alley, just to the left of the man wearing blue shorts. This marker, like the one in the previous photo, is probably a reference to sacrifice. In the Maya myth about the Hero Twins, their father Hun Hunahpu (the Maiz God) was decapitated after losing a ball game with the Lords of the Underworld (Xibalba). The Hero Twins' myth dates all the way back to Pre-Classic times (400 BC-100 AD), as much as a thousand years before this court was built.

Plaques on Ball Court's sloping walls

Two panels are set into the sloping wall on the court's south side. On the left is a small, heavily-worn panel containing what may be the image of a captive. On the right, under the stone ring, is a much larger panel containing more than 70 glyphs. These inscriptions provide historical information about early rulers, as well as the city's original ancient name. 

Note the stone ring at the top of the wall. Imagine the difficulty in propelling a rubber ball through such a small opening. Since the use of hands or feet by players was prohibited, passing a ball through the ring would have been a rare event. Consequently, the players would have scored in other ways, such as preventing the opposing team from returning the ball down the court.

The glyphs on the panel contain information about the city and its early rulers. Unlike other sites that we have visited in Mexico, Cobá's original name is known. The ancient name Ko-b'a-a appears at least three times on this panel. Archeologists disputed among themselves about whether Ko-b'a-a referred to a toponym (place name) or a supernatural being. However, epigraphers (people who study ancient glyphs) recently determined that this was the city's original name because it was used in the context of the arrival of the ruling dynasty to Cobá.

The glyphs on the panel also mention Junnpiktook, the founder of Cobá's Dynasty in 494 AD. The glyphs contain at least three dates. The first, 505 AD, is the date Juunpiktook dedicated Ball Court 1. The second, 573 AD, is the date when an unnamed successor dedicated Ball Court 2. The successor's name, Ix Ch'ak Cheen, was recently found on a different panel near the Ixmoja pyramid. She dedicated the Ball Court shortly before her death. The third date, 574 AD, refers to her successor, Kak' Ti' Balam. His wife was Ix Che'enal, a Kaan Dynasty princess, who was briefly kaloomte' before abdicating in favor of her husband. 

Plaque of a captive on the slope of the north wall. The captive is seen in profile, kneeling with his arms raised and bound at the wrist. Although in better condition than the captive image on the south wall, this panel is also badly worn from centuries of exposure. Human sacrifice was sometimes a part of the rituals associated with this deeply symbolic game. Those sacrificed were generally war captives but sometimes included players. Whether they were the losers or the winners of the game is a matter of dispute among archeologists. Although hard to believe from a modern perspective, human sacrifice was sometimes considered an honor in the ancient Maya world.

Dzibanche also displayed images of captives on its monuments. These were statements of power and military prowess. Their inclusion on Cobá's panels and stelae demonstrates the strong cultural influence of the Kaan Dynasty. That dynasty, first based in Dzibanche and later at Calakmul, was one of the two great powers during the Classic era. Its great rival was Tikal, in northern Guatemala. During their centuries-long struggle for dominance, both cities assembled broad coalitions of client states and allies. Cobá was allied to the Kaan Dynasty through political marriages like the one between Kak' Ti' Balam and Ix Che'enal. 

West end of Ball Court 2

Southwest corner of the ball court. The overall structure has four levels and includes two small stairways, one at this end and one at the east end. The stairway on this end has a large tree growing out of its steps. The six initial steps rise to a small platform. From the platform, more steps lead up to the top-level rooms lined with the rectangular columns. The staircases on the south half of the Ball Court are much smaller and less impressive than those on the northern half. This leads me to believe that this half was intended for the visiting team.

West end of the northern half of the court. There is a room with two columns on this end, possibly for the use of the officiating priests or for storage of game equipment. A semi-circular structure is attached to the wall in the right foreground. It has no apparent entrance, so its purpose is unclear. The sloping north wall of the court is visible above. The angle of a ball court's slope affected the speed of the ball when it bounced off. The sharper the angle, the greater the speed. In this case the angle is fairly gentle. At Chichen Itza, the Ball Court walls are vertical.

The north side of the Ball Court has a broad staircase. The existence of this grand staircase suggests that it was intended for large processions by Cobá's ruling elite. No such staircase exists on the southern half of the Ball Court, which again suggests that the southern half was intended for the visiting team's elite spectators. Similar to Ball Court 1, this grand staircase has thirteen steps, possibly related to the thirteen levels of heaven. Everything related to a ball court, and to the game itself, carried deep religious meaning.

East end of Ball Court 2

The east end of the Ball Court. The woman standing at the entrance of the alley provides a sense of scale. To the right is the northern side of the court, while the southern side can be seen in the distance. The large rectangular columns lining the top of the southern side supported a roof to protect the spectators from the sun or rain. The end of the southern structure contains a narrow set of steps that winds up to the top.

View of the eastern end of the southern half of the court. The steps leading up turn several times before they reach the top. There is only room for a single file of people to climb up the steps. This precluded any opportunity for the elite spectators on this side to mount a grand procession. Perhaps the design was intended as a bit of psychological warfare? The sloping wall of the court's northern half, also topped with columns, can be seen at the right side of the photo. While the  encroaching jungle seems to hem in the structures above, this area would have been clear of vegetation in ancient times.

A partially-excavated structure stands near the eastern end of the Ball Court's alley.. There is a broad, four-step staircase along the southern side. I have found only one mention of this structure in the literature, but no explanation of its purpose. Since it stands so close to the court, it is likely to have some relation to the game. Perhaps it was for the performance of rituals associated with the game. It also might have provided a slightly-elevated viewing area for lesser mortals who weren't allowed on the top levels of the court.

This completes Part 5 of my Cobá series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

Cobá Part 4: The Temple of Frescos and the altars and stelae of Grupo D

 

Templo de los Frescos is the centerpiece of the Paintings Group within Grupo D. The pyramid on which the Temple of the Frescos sits is called D-1. The temple's name comes from murals on the lintel above its main door and on the walls inside. The D-1 pyramid is the largest and most important structure within the Paintings Group. A broad staircase leads up from the plaza to the temple. In the plaza in front of the pyramid is a double row of columns and 13 altars. The palapa that shields the temple protects the murals. To protect the pyramid itself, tourists are prohibited from climbing the staircase.

In this posting, I will show more of the pyramid and its temple, as well as the other structures in the Painting Group. I will also show Structure D-6, a possible residential building. It stands to the right (north) of D-1. Other structures in the Paintings Group include D-4 and D-5, to which stelae 26 and 28 are attached. In addition to the photos, I'll describe some of the history of the Paintings Group and the discoveries archeologists have made here. For directions to the Cobá Archeological Zone, see Part 1 of this series.

Overview

Site map showing Grupo D and some of its structures. Grupo D stands at the intersection between the three other groups at Cobá. These include Grupo Cobá (seen in Parts 1-3), Grupo Nohoch Mul to the north, and Grupo Macanxoc, to the east. Although each group is located at some distance from the others, all are connected by sacbeob (plural of sacbe, meaning "white road"). These are the stucco-covered limestone roads for which Cobá is famous. Some of the sacbeob extend to sites far outside the city. For example, Sacbe 1 (see above) extends 100km (62mi), almost to Chichen Itza. 

The 50+ sacbeob that the city's rulers built gave Cobá a considerable economic advantage over ancient rivals like Oxkintok and Edzna. The city is also notable for its several lakes, including Lago Cobá and Lago Macanxoc. Due to its proximity to these lakes, Cobá did not suffer the water shortages experienced by many other ancient cities in northern Yucatan. Another important advantage was the short distance between Cobá and the Caribbean ports of Tulum, Xcaret, and Muyil. They provided access to seaborne trade routes along the Caribbean coast all the way down to Honduras and possibly to South America.

One way of getting around at Cobá. In addition to walking, visitors can rent individual bicycles or hire one of these tricycles, with a guy who will do all the pedaling. The distances between the Grupos can run to hundreds of yards and the hot-season weather can be uncomfortable for walkers. The tricycles are also a benefit to those with disabilities. The tricycles shown above are following Sacbe 4, a broad, smooth walkway. In places the stucco paving can still be seen, although it was laid down more than 1,500 years ago.

Archeologists believe that celestial sightings were used to align some of the longer sacbeob, particularly those which begin near the Ixmoja pyramid in Grupp Nohoch Mul. One of these is Sacbe 6, which aligns with the rise of Sirius. It was the brightest star in the sky in the period between 500-1000 AD, when the sacbeob were built. After doing their sightings, the Maya engineers set up a line of poles to ensure the straightness of the path. Then, using corvée (conscripted) labor or slaves, a wide swath was cut through the jungle. The sacbeob  were then built in sections. Maya living near each section would be assigned to maintain it.

While walking along the sacbe, we passed this unidentified stela. The upright monument had no discernible images or glyphs. It may be that these wore off over the centuries. However, it is known that some stelae were erected with no carvings on their limestone surfaces. Although the purpose of this stela is unclear, it is known that the Maya engineers set up stelae along the sacbeob as road markers, similar to those that have been found along ancient Roman roads.

To build one of these white roads, retaining walls were first erected along either side, using large stones. Then, more large stones were placed at the bottom and covered over by layers of increasingly smaller stones up to a gravel layer at the top. The gravel was then covered by a layer of sascab, a naturally occurring powdered limestone. Finally, the road was finished with limestone stucco, giving the surface its brilliant white color. The Maya engineers built ramps to overcome obstacles and there were culverts in some places to allow water to flow under a sacbe. The road's surface sloped down to either side so rainwater could run off. 

Site map of some key structures in the Paintings Group. At the top is the D-1 pyramid with its Temple of the Frescos. The drawing shows that the temple has an entrance on its front (west) side, divided by a column. There are also entrances on the north and south sides. At the base of the pyramid's staircase is Structure D-2. Stretching out in front of D-2 on the left (north) side is a long, double row of circular columns that once supported a perishable roof. To the right (south) of the columns is a collection of 13 individual altars. Structure D-6 is not shown on this site map but it is located to the right (south) of the pyramid.

Structure D-5 is at the bottom of the site map. It consists of a rectangular temple on its left (north) end, with a long narrow structure extending to the right (south). The D-5 temple has a broad staircase on its west (bottom) side, which leads up to a line of square columns along the top. There is also a set of columns along the temple's north side. The long narrow extension has three-step staircases along each side. About half way along the upper (east) side of this structure in an inset, containing Stela 28. The small structure between the D-1 pyramid and the D-5 monument is Structure D4, to which Stela 26 is attached.

Templo de los Frescos

Structure D-6, with the Temple of the Frescos (D-1) in the background. D-6 is a multi-room structure with four rectangular columns on its north end and two more in the middle. Three steps on its west side lead up to what may have been a long patio. I could find very little information about this building or its purpose. However, my best guess is that it served either a residential or an administrative function, or possibly both. Its proximity to the religious/ceremonial structures of the Paintings Group suggests that it might have been used by the priests associated with the temples, altars, and other monuments of the group. 

The structures of the Paintings Group were built during the Post-Classic period (900-1450 AD). After the end of the Classic era, Cobá lost its political and military supremacy in northern Yucatan and its population began a precipitous decline. Also lost was access to important trade routes to the south and east. Cobá became increasingly dependent on trade coming through the Peninsula's Caribbean ports and was, in turn, heavily influenced by their architectural styles. 

As a result of this changed focus, new construction at Cobá was no longer built in the Petén style of southern Yucatan and northern Guatemala. The D-1 pyramid, and particularly its Temple of the Frescos, closely resemble the Post-Classic structures found in Tulum and other Caribbean port cities. The only Classic era structures in this part of Cobá are Stelae 26, 27, and 28. These were originally located elsewhere in the city, but were moved during the Post-Classic era to the Paintings Group where they were re-erected. 

The D-1 pyramid is topped by the Temple of the Frescos. The pyramid is square and has six levels with rounded corners. It's height is 8m (26ft) and each side of the base on each is about 80m (262ft). A broad, four-stage staircase leads up the west side to the platform on which the temple stands. There are two small altars in front of the temple. On one of these, a fragmented censer (incense burner) was found. Under the floor of the temple, archeologists discovered an intact anthropomorphic red censer dating to the Post-Classic period. The red censer represented the Diving God and contained jade and shell beads. 

The temple has a single rectangular room with a doorway facing west, divided by a single column. Above the door is a lintel that contains painted murals. The temple's north and south sides have single, undivided doorways. The interior has a small altar adjoining the back wall. The walls were covered by four layers of stucco, colored yellow, blue, red, and black. The outer-most layer was red, with black lines. The design of this temple resembles those found at Tulum. 

Structure D-2, also called the Oratorio. D-2 sits at the base of the pyramid's staircase and has one entrance door. It was once covered by a vaulted roof. Inside, stone benches line the back and side walls. Stela 27 was found inside the Oratorio in a fragmented state, but with the image of a high-status individual still visible. This figure stands on the back of a single, non-Maya captive. Glyphs on the stela show a partially legible date from the Late Classic era, sometime between the 7th and 9th centuries. When D-2 was built in the Post-Classic period, Stela 27 was moved here from its original location. 

Also inside D-2, near Stela 27, is a small circular altar. Next to the altar is a phallus and sphere, both carved from stone. The sphere probably represents the gonads of the phallus. Together, they are thought to represent fertility. Dark stains on the walls of the Oratorio are the result of smoke from innumerable burnt offerings. When D-2 was excavated, the walls were covered with layers of stucco decorated with complex murals similar to those found at the Caribbean ports. One mural depicted Ek Chuah, the deity of Post Classic Maya merchants. In order to protect and preserve the murals, they were removed to a museum.

Ruined structures directly in front of the Temple of the Frescos. This shot was taken from the small platform on which D-2 stands. On the left are some of the thirteen altars that stretch out toward the west. Thirteen was an important number in the ancient Maya world. It relates to the thirteen levels of heaven, each associated with a different god. To the right is a row of circular columns that once supported a roof made of perishable materials. In the distance, you can see the palapa that protects Stela 26, which is attached to Structure D-4. 

One of the altars was found to contain the lower part of a stucco figure seated on a stool. This figure was similar to another found at Tulum. Its destroyed condition is thought to be the work of 16th century Franciscan friars, who were seeking to overthrow what they considered "devil worship". Not far away, archeologists also found a Post-Classic tripod cup containing jade beads and a small copper bell. Just west of the altars, they uncovered a crypt containing the partial remains of an adolescent and two skulls.

View from the west end of the columns. This structure has similar columns to those found on buildings at the ruins of Tulum. Archeologists believe this building functioned as a kind of dormitory for young men who were being instructed in the religious and social practices of Cobá's Post-Classical society. These included calendric arts, methods of divination and prophesies, cures for diseases. Other subjects included as reading, writing, drawing, and hieroglyphics.The priests who instructed them may have lived in Structure D-6. 

The priesthood to which the young men aspired was called ah kin mai ("he of the sun"). The chief priest was called ahau can mai and he examined and appointed new priests. His name referred to a sacred snake associated with Kukulkan, the "Feathered Serpent God", known elsewhere as Quetzalcoatl. Veneration of Kulkulkan in Yucatan began in the Late Classic era and his importance grew dramatically during the Post-Classic.

The altars to the right of the columned structure vary in their sizes and shapes. Given that there are thirteen of them, it is possible that each was used for rituals and sacrifices devoted to one of the gods that inhabited each of heaven's thirteen levels. Those gods included: 

1) Itzamna, the Supreme Ruler of the Cosmos 

2) Ix Chel, the Moon Goddess and Itzamna's wife

3) Kinich Ahau, the Sun God

4) Chaac, the Rain God

5) Yumil Kaxob, the God of Plants and son of Chaac

6) Yum Cimil, the God of Death

7) Yum Kaax, the God of the Forests

8) Hun Hunahpu, the God of Maiz (corn) and father of the Hero Twins

9) Huracan, the God of Storms and Chaos

10) Ix Tab, the Goddess of Suicide

11) Acan, the God of Intoxication

12) Ek Chua, the God of Merchants

13) Kukulcan, the Feathered Serpent and God of Knowledge

 

Structure D-5 and Stela 28

South end of Structure D-5. Most of this structure consists of a low, narrow, three-level platform, laid out on a north to south axis. In the upper right is the palapa that shields Stela 28 from the elements. Beyond the stela is the temple that forms the north end of D-5. This long platform may once have been used by the ah kin mai to conduct ritual processions that originated at the temple.

The ah kin mai were supported by Cobá's nobles, whom they served as advisors and whose sons they educated. From the nobles, the priests received payment in the form of red shells and green stone beads, cotton cloth, cacao, poultry, maiz and other necessities of life. The heavily tattooed ah kin mai wore their hair unkempt and smeared with sacrificial blood. Their long, white, sleeveless robes were made of bark cloth. In addition to this they wore feathered cloaks and shirts ornamented with snail-shells.

Stela 28 stands in a niche on the east side of the D-5 platform. This stela is another that was erected in the Classic period, but moved here sometime during the Post-Classic. Stela 28 is about 2m (6.5ft) tall and 0.75m (2.5ft) wide. The limestone is worn, but it contains the important Maya Long Count date of 9.10.0.0. This Maya calendar date designated the completion of the 10th katun of 9th baktun cycle. To the Maya, the end of a cycle was a significant event. 

These ancient people were expert mathematicians and astronomers. They had long observed the many cycles in the world around them, including seasons, animal and plant life-cycles, and the movement of the celestial bodies. Their "Long Count" calendar was based on a series of cycles. The longest was the baktun (144,000 days), followed by the katun (7,200 days). The tun cycle was 360 days and the uinal was 20. Individual days were called k'in. The stela's date of 9.10.0.0.0 corresponds to January 24, 633 AD, which marked the completion of the 10th katun of the 9th baktun cycle. 

The surface of Stela 28 is fairly worn, but an image can stil be discerned. The long cylindrical object the figure holds across his chest indicates that he is probably a ruler. My photo only shows him down to the knees, so there may or may not be bound captives kneeling next to his feet or under them. However, nearly all the stelae that I have photographed at Cobá have displayed captives in such positions. 

The presence of the captives on Cobá's stelae shows the strong link between the city and the Petén region of southern Yucatan and northern Guatemala. Much of this region was dominated by the Kaan ("Snake") Dynasty, often referred to as the Kaanul. They had an early and long-standing relationship with the ruling dynasty of Cobá. During the Classic era, the Kaanul established a wide network of client states and allies, including Cobá. When Juunpiktook founded Cobá's Classical-era dynasty in 494 AD, he did so with the assistance of the Kaanul.

The D-5 platform ends at a three-level temple. The stumps of four columns stand along the south wall of the temple. The outer two are rectangular, while the inner two are circular. The room once had a roof of perishable materials. It is unlikely that D-5 had a residential function. The entire structure appears to be ceremonial in nature, with a temple on one end and a raised walkway for processions extending to the south. The Post-Classic inhabitants of Cobá sanctified their D-5 monument by incorporating the Classic-era Stela 28 into its structure.

The Paintings Group structures were constructed hundreds of years after the Classic era ended. By that time, the inscriptions were probably incomprehensible to Cobá's population. The Long Count calendar had gone out of use centuries before. The hieroglyphs, if legible at all, would have been as unreadable as ancient Greek would be to most modern people. So, why did the residents of Post-Classical Cobá go to all the trouble of preserving the stelae? During a period of decline and decay, the ancient images and mysterious hieroglyphs on the stelae probably helped connect the Post-Classic people to the greatness of a mystical past. 

View of the temple that forms the north end of D-5. Unlike many of the Post-Classic structures that incorporated Classic-era stelae, D-5 is a substantial building, impressive in its own right. The west side of the temple has a broad staircase that leads up to the top. Eight large rectangular columns line the front of the temple's top level, which has several rooms. The columns once supported a roof of perishable materials. While the interior of the structure is made of rough stones, the staircase and outer walls were made with carefully cut stones. 

Structure D-4 & Stela 26

Structure D-4 and Stela 26. These are located about 50m (164ft) west of the Temple of the Frescos. D-4 is a three level structure with what appears to be an altar on the top. Rituals here would have been conducted by the ah kin mai. The stela is surrounded on three sides by a low U-shaped structure and faces south on the open fourth side. The surface of the stela contains the image of a standing figure who may be the Kaloomté ("Supreme Warrior") Ix Ch'ak Ch'een. She was a powerful queen in the Early Classic era and became Cobá's first kaloomté, a title reserved for the rulers of regions extending beyond a single city.

The ah kin mai were a powerful and conservative part of Maya society who participated in all the important ceremonies. These included rituals associated with puberty, weddings, farming and hunting, sacrifices, burials, and warfare. Another important religious group were the chilamob (plural of chilam), who interpreted messages from the gods. The chilamob received their prophesies in the inner sanctums of temples and then interpreted them to the priests. The most famous of these, Chilam Balam, is said to have predicted the Conquest, prior to the arrival of the Spanish.

Structure D-4 from the rear, showing its three-level construction. An ah kin mai may once have stood upon the second level to offer sacrifices. These might have included burnt offerings or blood acquired through auto-sacrifice. This procedure involved piercing one's own tongue, ear, or genitals with a sharp spine from the tip of a henequen leaf or the tail of a manta ray. Blood was considered the essence of life and thus a suitable gift for the gods. In addition, the pain from the act could sometimes result in visions from which prophesies could be made. 

This completes Part 4 of my Cobá series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim