Cobá Part 8: The stelae of Grupo Macanxoc that celebrate Cobá's greatest ruler

 

The author, standing in front of Stela #2 of the Grupo Macanxoc. This is one of four stelae at Cobá that display images of Kaloomté K'awiil Ajaw, a woman who was Cobá's most powerful monarch during the Classic era (500-800 AD). Her reign lasted for 42 years, a period that was the city's Golden Age. The stela stands 3m (9.9ft) tall and is the largest in Grupo Macanxoc. It is also one of the largest in Cobá itself. The stela is set into the bottom step on the staircase of a large and complex platform shown later in this posting. The stelae at Cobá are numbered according to when they were discovered, rather than their age.

This, along with my next posting, will focus on Grupo Macanxoc. The Maya created this group of structures solely for ceremonial and religious purposes. Part 8 will be devoted to the four of the eight stelae (1,2,4, and 5). These contain a total of six images of rulers. Five of these images have been identified as K'awiil Ajaw and the sixth is believed to be her husband. In Part 9, I'll show you Stelae 3, 6,7, and 8, the four remaining stelae. These display male rulers, including K'awiil Ajaw's predecessors and successors. Also included will be some of the temples that are scattered around Grupo Macanxoc.

Overview

Site map of Grupo Macanxoc. This group of structures is reached by way of Sacbe 9, one of Cobá's famous stucco-surfaced "White Roads" (see Part 1). On the map, the sacbe enters Grupo Macanxoc from the upper left. Stela #2 is part of the cluster of numbered stelae at the opposite end of the map from where the sacbe enters. To see how Grupo Macanxoc fits into Cobá's overall layout, see Part 4. That map shows this group of structures as somewhat isolated from the other three groups, which may have been intentional. It can only be reached by Sacbe 9, while the other groups are tied together by multiple sacbeob.

Grupo Macanxoc is a collection of structures built on a platform that is 200m (656ft) long and stands about 4m (13ft) above the surrounding swampy terrain. Maya architects nearly always oriented their structures with the Four Cardinal Directions in mind. However, on this platform, the structures are scattered about with very little reference to the Cardinal Directions. There are eight stelae, some of which are incorporated into ritual platforms while others stand independently. All of the stelae are believed to have originally been placed elsewhere in Cobá, but were moved to their present positions in the Post Classic period.

 

This wall is part of the many un-excavated structures at Coba. I spotted it while walking along Sacbe 9 on the way to the Grupo Macanxoc. More than 6,500 structures have been identified at Cobá, but only about 10% of them have been been excavated. Until recently, archeologists focused on the temples, pyramids, palaces, ball courts, stelae, and sacbeob in the core area of the city used by the elite. In recent years, their attention has been drawn to the areas where ordinary people lived and worked, as they worked to understand daily life.

Sacbe 9 is only a few hundred meters in length, fairly short for a Cobá sacbeob. However, it is 6.7m (22ft) wide, making the city's broadest. Clearly, it was meant for grand ceremonial processions. The path is narrower today and hemmed in by the encroaching jungle. Still, we occasionally caught glimpses of semi-buried structures like the one above. As we walked along, people on bicycles and tricycle carriages whizzed passed in either direction. Both forms of transportation can be rented near Cobá's main entrance. However, Carole and I preferred to stroll along and enjoy the sights and sounds of the jungle around us. 

Stela #1

Stela #1 is the first structure encountered upon entering Grupo Macanxoc. The stela sits on top of a platform called A9. There are staircases on all four sides of A9. A small altar stands a couple of meters in front of the main stairs. Stela #1 contains images and glyphs on both sides. Its 313 glyphs are the Maya world's longest known hieroglyphic text. Included are dates that reach back to the mythical Maya creation date of 3114 BC. They also extend forward to the calendar date of December 21, 2012. This covers an astounding 5,127 years, the full length of one of the five Maya ritual eras. Together, these eras total 25,685 years!

The images on both sides of the stela are of Kaloomté K'awiil Ajaw. However, she did not erect this stela, her son and heir Chan Yopaat did. This occurred following her death in 682 and Chan Yopaat's accession to the throne that same year. The new kaloomté put up Stela #1 both to memorialize his mother's 42-year reign and to legitimize his own rule. Archeologists have known of Stela #1's existence since the late 19th century. However, the Maya hieroglyphic code was not broken until the 1970s. It was not until the first decade of the 21st century that the readable portion of Stela #1 began to be accurately deciphered. 

K'awiil Ajaw is shown on both sides of Stela #1 and is surrounded by 313 glyphs. Archeologists have determined the image to be that of a woman because she wears a huipil (dress) down to her ankles. Maya men are never portrayed wearing huipiles. Aside from the dress, she is portrayed in a manner similar to images of Cobá's male rulers. Her body faces forward with her head turned to the right and she carries the long scepter office across her chest. Dangling from her neck, almost to her ankles, is a horizontal bar with three tubular beads on each end. Rulers wore this emblem when they intended to take captives in war.

The two sides of the stela contain a total of eight bound captives. Each side shows K'awiil Ajaw standing directly on top of two of them, while another kneels on either side of her feet. Every one of K'awiil Ajaw's stelae at Grupo Macanxoc shows her standing next to at least one captive. This remarkable total of fourteen captives is greater than those shown on the stelae of any other Cobá ruler. It is also greater than almost any other Classic-era monarch in the Maya world. This was apparently a woman who meant business.

Stela #2

Stela #2 is set at the bottom of the staircase of a large and complex platform. This staircase is the only one on the platform. A large square altar stands about 3m (10ft) in front of the large stela. While Stela #1 was erected by K'awiil Ajaw's son after her death in 682, Stela #2 was the first one that she put up herself near the beginning of her long reign. According to the glyphs on a different stela, she became Cobá's kaloomté in 640 AD. Two years later, in 642, the she erected and dedicated this one.  

Ix Ch'ak Ch'een (see Part 7) was the first of Cobá's female rulers. Later, in 569 she was elevated to kaloomté ("Supreme Warrior"), making her the first of the city's rulers to become a regional overlord. She died in 573 was succeeded by another queen, Ix Che'enal, who ruled for only about a year before abdicating in favor of her husband, K'ahk Bahlam (ruled 574-610). He was succeeded by his son Sihyal Chan K'awiil (ruled 610-632) who, in turn, was followed by his son Xaman K'awiil (ruled 632-640). Xaman K'awiil was probably K'awiil Ajaw's brother, although there is some speculation that he may have been her father.

Stela #2 has been eroded by the weather for over a millennia.  Due to the poor quality of the limestone, only the outlines of K'awiil Ajaw's image and of the glyphs surrounding her can be seen. The only clear part is the captive on whose back she stands and the lower part of another to the right of her feet. The only readable glyphs are along the stela's side edges. Given the immense hieroglyphic record at Cobá, it must be intensely frustrating to epigraphers (the people who decipher hieroglyphs) that so few glyphs are readable.  

In fact, we don't even know the actual name of this powerful queen. While the title kaloomté is readable, her name is not. The closest that epigraphers could come was K'awiil ("God of Lightning") and Ajaw ("Lord"). K'awiil and Ajaw are believed to be honorific titles attached to her still unreadable name. However, new discoveries of readable glyphs at Cobá are made fairly regularly (see Parts 2 & 7), so stay tuned. 

A long room with several pillars lines the left side of Stela #2's large platform. The presence of this and other rooms makes the stela's platform one of the more complex structures of Grupo Macanxoc. While the stela was dedicated in 642, the platform may have been constructed much later, with the stela having been brought from elsewhere to adorn it.

We know from Grupo Macanxoc's various stelae that K'awiil Ajaw was probably born in 617 as the daughter of Kaloomté Sihyaj Chan K'awiil. Following her father's death in 632, her brother Xaman K'awiil took over and reigned until his death in 640. So, at the age of 23, K'awiil Ajaw became Cobá's third female Kaloomté. Thus began her 42-year reign as the overlord of Cobá's northeastern Yucatan realm. She was the city-state's greatest ruler at the time when the Maya Classic world was reaching its political, economic, and social peak. 

View of the rear of Stela #2's platform. By ascending the throne at this time, K'awiil Ajaw became an important player in the complex inter-relationships among the various Maya city-states. Her reign roughly paralleled that of Yuknoom Ch'een (ruled 636-686). He was the Kaan (Snake) dynasty ruler who was the kaloomté of Calakmul, the Maya world's greatest power at that time. Although Cobá and Calakmul are separated by 260km (162mi) of rugged jungle, K'awiil Ajaw and Yuknoom Ch'een undoubtedly knew of and communicated with each other.

The Kaan Dynasty had long maintained a relationship with Cobá. In the fifth century, the Kaan were still based in Dzibanche. In 494, they helped Juunpiktook (the Cobá dynasty's founder) to become ruler. Kaan strategy was to build power through a broad network of allies. They also sent their royal daughters to marry the rulers of other city-states. For example, K'awiil Ajaw's grandmother, Ix Che'enal (Cobá's second female kaloomté) may have have been the daughter of a Kaan ruler. Through these alliances they assembled the power to defeat Tikal, the other great city-state of the Classic world. 

Stela #4

Stela #4 stands inside an enclosure embedded into a broad staircase. The impressive staircase leads to the top of a largely un-excavated temple/pyramid (known to archeologists as A1). You can see trees and other vegetation still growing at the top. It is the highest structure in Grupo Macanxoc and stands about 12m (39ft) tall. Structure A1 and its stela are located about 40m (131ft) to the southwest of Stela #1 (see site map above). The fact that the staircase and stela enclosure are the only parts excavated so far shows how much work still needed to be done at Cobá when we visted.  

Stela #4, inside its enclosure. The space in which the stela stands is about the size of a telephone booth (for those of us old enough to remember them). The enclosure was built by the ancient architects, rather than by modern archeologists, in order to protect the stela and possibly to conceal it from unauthorized eyes. 

Stela #4 is 2.5m (8.2ft) tall and a 1.04m (3.4ft) wide, making it one of the larger of Cobá's stelae. It contains the image of a female ruler, along with glyphs containing her accession date of 640 and the stela's dedication date of 652. Although K'awiil Ajaw's name is again not decipherable, her title of kaloomté is. This, along with the dress and the dates, confirms that she is the person in the image. Stela #4 was erected a decade after Stela #1 and is the second that was put up during her reign.

Although most of the glyphs on Stela #4 are unreadable, K'awiil Ajaw's image is clear. So are the images of the three captives at her feet. She stands with each sandaled foot on the back of a crouching captive. A third captive kneels next to her right foot with his bound hands raised. All are naked, except for loincloths and simple head-dresses. Note that, on Stela #2--her first--there were two captives. One this one, there are three. Her conquests seem to be expanding. The ceremonial bar she holds is the symbol of a kaloomté. The face of a divine figure emerges from the lower end of the ceremonial bar. 

Kaloomté K'awiil Ajaw ruled a city-state that was expansionist and militaristic, as attested by the numerous captives displayed on her various stelae. She pushed her realm's boundaries to the west, as well as north and south. Almost certainly, Cobá controlled the Caribbean coastal seaports like Tulum that were so important to Cobá's trade. At this point, Cobá had "arrived" and was no longer subordinate to Calakmul. There is even some evidence of military conflict between those two city-states, as well as with Edzna to the southwest and Oxkintok to the west. Control over trade routes and subordinate towns were the usual causes.

Stela #5

Stela #5 is a stand-alone stelae, not incorporated into a platform or temple. This is the only stela with an image of K'awiil Ajaw on one side and a male image on the other. Epigraphers came to the conclusion that the male must must be her husband, since husband-and-wife stelae have been found in other Maya cities. Also, since he only appears on one side of one of the four stelae showing K'awiil Ajaw, it is believed that he is clearly the junior partner in the relationship. Although his image is on the "front" side, we should remember that this is probably not the original place or orientation of Stela #5. 

K'awiil Ajaw lived up to her "Sacred Warrior" title. She actively used her military to expand her realm. While Yaxuná probably fell under the sway of Cobá during the rule of an earlier kaloomté, she consolidated control and encouraged inter-city trade. She was also a builder and a patron of the arts and science. Many of Cobá's 50+ sacbeob were built under her direction, possibly including the 100km (62mi) sacbe to Yaxuná. During her long reign, scribes at Cobá were very active and the city became a center of calendric studies. People of the Post Classic period, hundreds of years later, viewed her reign as a golden age.

The  two sides of Stela #5 display K'awiil Ajaw and her husband. Glyphs on the stela indicate that it was dedicated in 662, at the mid-point between her accession as kaloomté and her death. Since no male figure appears on Stelae #2 or #4, she may not have been married when those stelae were dedicated. The fact that the glyphs don't refer to the male figure as a kaloomté indicates his lesser status. In addition, he did not become kaloomté when K'awiil Ajaw died. The regional overlord position went to her son, Chan Yopaat. This suggests that either the husband was already dead or was simply not in the line of succession.

In the drawings of Stela #5 above, the male figure appears on the left and K'awiil Ajaw is on the right, He is dressed in a man's the knee-length kilt. She wears the standard ankle-length women's huipil. Oddly, he has two captives at his feet, while she has only one. The meaning of this disparity is unknown. Perhaps Kaloomté K'awiil Ajaw, at the height of her power, simply wanted to boost the image of her husband a bit and saw no need to increase her own fame.

This completes Part 8 of my Cobá series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments, please be sure to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

P.S. For those who would like to dive deeper into the things I cover in Parts 8 & 9, here are the main sources I relied upon:

Harvard Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology

The Queen of Cobá, a Reanalysis of the Maccanxoc Stelae

A Preliminary Ruling Sequence of Cobá, Quintana Roo

Notes on the Accession Dates in the Inscriptions of Cobá

The Maya Ruins Website: Cobá

Wikipedia: Maya Monarchs

Cobá Part 7: The great Ixmoja pyramid of Grupo Nohoch Mul

The Ixmoja pyramid is the tallest Maya structure in northern Yucatan. The height of the structure is 40m (131.2ft). In addition, Ixmoja stands on a small rise of about 6m (19.6ft), which gives it an extra bit of altitude. The tiny figures of tourists that you can see on the main staircase provide a sense of scale. Ixmoja is part of the Grupo Nohoch Mul, which includes several other structures. Built in stages during the Late Classic and Early Post Classic eras, Ixmoja was lost in the jungle for a thousand years until archeologists visited Cobá in the 19th century. 

In this posting, I'll show you the pyramid and tell you about an important discovery in 2024. Near Ixmoja, an archeologist stumbled--almost literally--across the Foundation Rock, a huge stone covered with hieroglyphs. While they have not been completely deciphered, some of the glyphs yielded fascinating new information about Cobá's Classic-era dynasty. They revealed a previously unknown female monarch named Ix Ch'ak Ch'een. She was  very powerful and established Cobá as a major player in the Maya world. (Photo from Travel Wonders)

Overview

Site map showing Grupo Nohoch Mul and the Ixmoja pyramid. The Nohoch Mul group is in the upper right. The pyramid is at the end of the purple trail and is marked Nohoch Mul, which means "Big Mound". Although the Ixmoja pyramid is sometimes called by that name, Nohoch Mul is actually the name for a whole group of structures. 

In addition to Ixmoja, the group includes a huge platform northeast of the pyramid called C-7. The platform is 17m (56ft) high, 125m (410ft) wide, and 115m (377ft) deep. When we visited, the platform was obscured by the thick jungle, so I didn't photograph it or even know it was there. West of the pyramid are Structures 10 and 12, supporting Stelae 20 and 21, respectively. These structures and their stelae were covered in Part 6.

The Foundation Rock. This large stone plaque was discovered inadvertently in November of 2024 by archeologist Ana Calderón while she was touring Grupo Nochoh Mul. The Foundation Rock is located about 152m (500ft) behind the Ixmoja pyramid, under a stairwell and beside a natural waterhole. While walking by, Calderón noticed a large stone that was literally covered with hieroglyphs, many of which seemed readable. This last was very important. Although Cobá probably has more hieroglyphs than any other site in Yucatan, they were carved into limestone of poor quality and have mostly become indecipherable. 

The stone monument measures 4.2m x 3.4m (14ft x 11ft) and contains 123 glyphs. Archeologists named it the Foundation Rock because it is, in effect, the founding document of a powerful, Early Classic era dynasty in northeast Yucatan. The dynasty had originally been established at Cobá in 494 AD by a ruler named Juunpiktook. He had gained his throne with the aid of the Kaan (Snake) Dynasty, a foreign power based in Dzibanche in southern Yucatan. Because of this, Cobá at first functioned as a vassal of the Kaan and the authority Juunpiktook and his early successors didn't extend much beyond the city itself. 

The only known image of Ix Ch'ak Ch'een appears on Stela 30. This stela is located inside of a small temple part way up the west side of Ixmoja's main staircase (see below). Her name is mentioned in its glyphs. Ix is a female prefix, roughly meaning "Lady". Ch'ak Ch'een means "Red Rainbow". The image on Stela 30 differs from most of the others at Cobá. The figure faces left, rather than right, doesn't hold the long scepter of office, and has no captives at its feet. The sex of the image was determined by the ankle-length huipil (dress), a garment that Maya men never wore. Ix Ch'ak Ch'een was the first woman to rule Cobá, not as the consort of a male ruler but as a monarch in her own right.

She became Cobá's queen on an unknown date in the middle of the 6th century AD, about 60 years after Juunpiktook took the throne. There were probably 2-3 successors between his death and when she became the ruler. However, their names and the dates of their rule are uncertain. What the Foundation Rock tells us is that Ix Ch'ak Ch'een became Cobá's first Kaloomté in 569 AD. Kaloomté  ("Supreme Warrior") was the Maya world's highest rank. It was reserved for rulers of a whole region, not just a city. So, Ix Ch'ak Ch'een was both the first female ruler of Cobá and later became the city's first kaloomté. 

The pyramid's west and east sides 

View of the west side of the Ixmoja pyramid. Beside the main staircase stands a smaller one, with a palapa-covered stela at its base. The stela was created during the Classic era, but was moved from elsewhere in Cobá and re-erected here during the Post Classic. No clear images, glyphs, or dates are visible on the stela's broken pieces. 

There are at least 17 steps on the west-side staircase and the first four are broader than the rest. This fact, along with the sheered-off appearance of the staircase's west side suggest a collapse at some time in the past. At the top of this staircase are the remains of the small temple which contains Stela 30.

One of the documented accomplishments of Ix Ch'ak Ch'een was the construction of Ball Court 2 in Grupo D. The significance of this is hard to overstate, because the ball game was central to Maya religious, political, and social life. Hieroglyphic inscriptions on the ball court's Panel 7 state that she dedicated the court in 573 AD. Another woman, Ix Che'enal, became kaloomté in 573, so Ix Ch'a Ch'een must have died sometime that same year.

A small ruined temple occupies a platform at the top of the west-side staircase. This photo was taken from the main staircase. The temple's single room was once covered by a vaulted stone roof. The entrance was between the two pillars. Stela 30 rests against the wall at the rear of the temple and is protected by a small palapa. The stela is broken and the side facing out shows the lower part of a standing female figure. The side facing the wall contains the surviving glyphs, one of which is the name Ix Ch'ak Ch'een Yopaat. This is one of several variations of the queen's name that have been found on different monuments.

Artifacts were found in and around the temple. These included stone trays called metates, used for grinding maiz. Also present were charred bone fragments from deer and wild boar called jabali. These items indicate that the temple was used for ceremonial activity related to fertility because Maya codices (hieroglyphs on paper) show fertility offerings of venison on metates. Found under the floor, near the base of Stela 30, were beads of jade, coral, and shell pectorals. Ceramic fragments within the temple were from the Puuc area (northwest Yucatan). This indicates they were left during the Post Classic period. 

The east side of Ixmoja also contains structures, but in a more ruined condition. At the base, a three-step staircase leads up to a temple with a single room. It once had a vaulted roof, supported by two pillars. Along the rear wall of the temple is a long bench. Similar to the temple on the west side, ceramic fragments of offerings from the Puuc region were found. These included a slate-ware plate fragment containing the date 810 AD. This is one of the latest dates ever found at Cobá. It places the offering during the transition between the Late Classic and the Early Post Classic periods.

Ancient Maya rulers gained legitimacy not just with military power, but through their association with the gods. The glyphic inscriptions on the Foundation Rock closely connect Ix Ch'ak Ch'een with the deities who protected Cobá. One variation of her name includes the title K'awiil. This was a deity related to lightning, the serpent witz (associated with water), and royal lineage. The Foundation Rock's glyphs also connect her with Bolon Tz'akab Ajaw ("Lord of Innumerable Generations"). One of the key roles of a Maya monarch was to act as an intermediary between the gods and the people.

 The Main Staircase

The main staircase rises steeply. without landings. It is daunting enough to climb this seemingly unending set of stairs, but the return is especially precarious. Some people choose to come down on their butts, while clinging to a rope. I'm not particularly afraid of heights, but this staircase is in a class of its own. In 2019, the staircase was closed to tourists and in 2021 work was begun on a wooden staircase constructed up the middle. Finally, in 2025, the new staircase was opened to the public. I suppose it was necessary for safety, but I'm glad I got to climb Ixmoja the old fashioned way.

Like many other temples and pyramids throughout Mesoamerica, Ixmoja was built in stages. In 2016 archeologists discovered an earlier pyramid inside it that is about 10m (32.8ft) tall. They were able to detect this earlier structure with a non-invasive technology called tri-dimensional electric resistivity tomography. This, along with other new technologies, have revolutionized archeology. One of these, called Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging), can quickly scan huge areas of jungle from the air, revealing otherwise invisible structures. At Cobá, Lidar has been used to detect structures along the sacbeob.

Nearing the top, some people scramble up while others sidestep or crawl down. The first mention of Cobá' was made in a mid-19th century report by John Stephens and Frederick Catherwood. They heard about the city but couldn't reach it because of its remoteness. The first non-Maya to actually visit was Juan Peón Contreras Elizalde, director of the Yucatan Museum. He made the arduous journey through the jungle in 1882. Nine years later, in 1891, an Austrian explorer named Teobert Maler stopped for two days, but left quickly because of the Caste War. Thirty-five years passed before an American, Thomas Gann, visited in 1926. 

Gann's visit triggered a series of eight expeditions by the Carnegie Institution of Washington (CIW). Between 1926 and 1932, the CIW thoroughly explored and mapped the site. Over the next 40 years, other archeologists briefly stopped and reported their observations about the sacbeob and stelae they found. In 1972, the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Antropologia y Historia (INAH) began an intensive program of investigation and restoration. During this same period, the first modern road was built to the site. Even 144 years after the first visit, new discoveries continue to be made, the most recent being the Foundation Rock in 2024.

Temple of the Diving God

The Temple of the Diving God stands on the platform at the top of Ixmoja. The temple bears a strong resemblance to temples at Tulum and other Caribbean coastal sites of the Post Classic era. There is one room, entered through a single door. Unfortunately a barrier prevented me from accessing the interior. There were originally three niches across the top level, but the one on the far left appears to have broken off with a section of the roof. Each of the remaining niches contains a stucco statue of Ah Muzen Cab, a deity that archeologists call the Diving (or Descending) God because of how he is always portrayed. 

In addition to building Ball Court 2, Ix Ch'ak Ch'een was also responsible for construction of some of Cobá's 50+ sacbeob ("White Roads"). These not only tied the disparate parts of the city into a coherent whole, but they also connected Cobá with outlying areas. This road network was crucial in the development of the city as an economic, political, and military powerhouse. It was the extension of her power over a whole region that allowed Ix Ch'ak Ch'een to become the first of Cobá's rulers to achieve the title of kaloomté.

Ah Muzen Cab is always shown in an upside-down posture. His head is at the bottom and his legs and feet point upward. The stucco is too worn to see much of his arms. A similar statue occupies the other niche. This depiction led archeologists to dub him the "Diving God". Ah Muzen Cab is the protector of bees and beekeepers. One of Cobá's specialties was the production of honey for domestic use and for export. Hives of the Melipona becheii and Melipona yucatanica species of stingless bees were kept for these purposes. Ah Muzen Cab was revered, not only at Cobá, but also at Tulum and the other coastal cities. 

By becoming the kaloomté, Cobá's first female ruler elevated herself from the role of vassal or subordinate ally. This gave her greater importance in the eyes the rulers of other powerful cities like Calakmul and Tikal. During the Classic era, their military and political resources probably still exceeded that of Cobá. However, Ix Ch'ak Ch'een had established herself and her dynastic successors as a force that had to be reckoned with. The Foundation Rock also mentions an important, but undefined, relationship she had with Sky Witness, the powerful ruler of Dzibanche who decisively defeated Tikal in 562 AD.

The perilous climb down

Visitors to the top of Ixmoja gingerly pick their way down. I stood on the platform for a while, both to enjoy the view and to steel myself for the climb down. Each step must be chosen carefully. Over the years, there have been numerous falls on Mexico's pyramids, including this one. These have sometimes resulted in injuries or even death. The ancient steps are smooth and can be slippery. Those who climb in the mountains know that the most dangerous part is always coming down. You are tired, eager to get to the bottom, and gravity works against you. Once you start to fall, your momentum can make recovery impossible.

This completes Part 7 of my Cobá series. I hope you enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely fashion.

Hasta luego, Jim

Cobá Part 6: The great market at Plaza A, the Xaibé pyramid, and Stelae 20 and 21.

What did a pre-hispanic market look like? There are no known Classic or Post-Classic- era depictions of a market at Cobá. However, a city of 50,000 must have had a least one and probably several. The mural above shows a market in pre-hispanic Tlaxcala, in central Mexico. How it looked and functioned would have been quite similar to a market in Cobá, or other cities in the Maya world. As a matter of fact, it is similar in many respects to the Wednesday tianguis (street market) in Ajijic, where I live. The word for "market" or "where one buys or sells" is k'iwik in the Yucatec Maya language.

In this posting, I'll focus on Plaza A, where archeologists believe Cobá's main market was held. An important structure in the plaza is the Xaibé pyramid. This temple may have been used for rituals and ceremonies by the merchants and traders. Along with my explanation of the market and how it functioned, I'll show some ancient murals from the Acropolis market at the Maya city of Calakmul. It was contemporary with Cobá and the two cities had many political and cultural connections. (The photo above is from a spectacular set of murals by Desiderio Hernández Xochitiotzin at the Palacio Gobierno in Tlaxcala)

Overview

Plaza A is located in an area where Grupo D and Grupo Nohoch Mul overlap. The plaza  is a rectangle surrounded on all four sides by long slender structures. The Xaibé pyramid is the small square in the plaza's southeast corner. Standing between the plaza and the main Nohoch Mul ruins are Structures 10 and 12, which contain Stelae 20 and 21 respectively. I will show you these at the end of this posting. The inset map on the lower right shows Cobá's network of sacbeob (plural of sacbe, which means "white road").

Plaza A was originally quite large, but today much of it has been reclaimed by the jungle. The structures which border it, except for the pyramid, are largely un-excavated. The plaza covers an area of 26,000 sq meters (2.6 hectares). The surface is almost completely flat, with a variation of only 30cm. These features would have made it ideal for a large market capable of handling thousands of people and many booths. No permanent market structures have been discovered, so they must have been made of perishable materials or were erected periodically on a temporary basis. 

Remains of Sacbe #4. The broken surface above is the limestone stucco paving that formed the top layer of the sacbe. See Part 1 for a description of how they were built and the role they played in Cobá's success in the ancient world. Five sacbeob terminate at Plaza A. These include Sacbe #1, #4, #6, #7,and #8. Sacbe #1 is by far the longest. It runs 100km (62mi) from Plaza A all the way to Yaxuna, just south of Chichen Itza. This makes it one of the longest "white roads" in Yucatan. The people of Yaxuna manufactured pottery, which was carried by porters down Sacbe #1 to the Cobá market.

A porter trudges along, using a tumpline to carry a large ceramic pot. He is clothed only with a loincloth and high-backed sandals. In his right hand he holds a walking staff to support himself. The tumpline that passes across the porter's forehead extends back to support a large ceramic pot. His left hand reaches up to hold the tumpline in place. I have observed Mexicans using this ancient method and it can still be seen in cultures world-wide.

The Yucatec Maya term for the long distance merchant-traders who employed porters like this was pplom yok. 

A woven fiber base helps support the large pot on the porter's back. The pot may be empty, but probably is not. Many of the murals on the walls of Calakmul's Ch'iik Naahb market  involve foods like atole, a thick drink made from maiz (corn). Most likely, the pot contains dried kernels of maiz. Perched on the rim of the pot is a creature that archeologists believe is either a pet or a mythical image. (Photo is from my posting on the Ch'iik Naahb murals at Calakmul)

The Atole Woman. Just behind the woman in the diaphanous blue dress is a vertical set of glyphs. They are a caption that identifies her as "Atole Woman". This pplom (merchant) place a pot on the head of the kneeling woman, or perhaps reaches up to retrieve it. A series of market scenes cover the walls of the Ch'iik Naahb Acropolis. Each of the scenes has a short caption labeling what is clearly commercial activity. Behind the kneeling woman is a seated man drinking from a large bowl of atole, no doubt a satisfied customer. Another man, this time behind the Atole Woman, prepares more atole. (Photo from Ch'iik Naabh murals)

Archeologists use several methods to identify ancient markets. One way looks at features that provide efficiency in exchanges. Another examines how goods are distributed. Still another analyzes the logistics of moving goods from producers to consumers. At Cobá, archeologists geochemically examined soil samples from Plaza A. Their analysis showed high levels of phosphorous and trace elements typical of the products that were present and activities that occurred in an ancient market. This, along with the intersection of so many sacbeob at the plaza, provides convincing evidence that Plaza A was Cobá's main market.

The shape of the Xaibé pyramid is unique in Cobá. The limestone pyramid has four levels, with a single staircase leading to the top. Each step is high and very narrow. The 61 degree slope of the staircase is extremely steep. Xaibé has a square base with rounded corners and is 14m (46ft) high. Each side of its base is 21m (69ft) long. The fourth level is a solid stone cone. By contrast, other pyramids at Cobá have flat platforms on top that contain rectangular temples. The pyramid was given the Maya Yucatec name Xaibé ("crossroads") because it was built near the intersection of so many sacbeob. 

Before they determined that Plaza A was a major market site, the function of the pyramid had long puzzled archeologists. Some thought it was an observatory, like the one at Chichen Itza, and many tourist publications still describe it that way. However, it is now believed that the pyramid was used for rituals by merchants and traders upon arriving or departing Cobá. At the bottom of the stairs is a very weathered 9th century stela. Offerings found around it include a stone serpent sculpture, shell pendants, small red shell plaques, and fragments of shell and jade. This begs the question: "to whom were these offerings made?"

In the Classic era, "God L" was the deity of merchants and traders. Archeologists have dubbed him God L because they haven't yet deciphered a name for him. I photographed this mural in the ruins of Cacaxtla, in central Mexico. During the Post-Classic period, he was called Ek Chuah. God L wears a cape and a hood made from a bear's head. The top half of his face is painted green. He is obviously a rich god, because he is adorned with jade jewelry around his neck and on his wrists. His right hand holds a short stick or wand. Sitting on his forearm is an object that looks like a fox head on top of quadruple scoop of ice cream.

To me, the most interesting part of this image is God L's pack, which is propped up by his walking staff. Strapped to the pack are various trade goods, including a pot containing a leafy green plant. Perched on the back of the pack is the same strange creature seen previously, sitting on the porter's pot. This may have been a protective totem for those involved in long-distance trade. In the Maya world, as well as throughout Mesoamerica, trade was extremely important. Cities astride important routes grew rich. Wars were fought to control them. It is no wonder that merchants and traders were entitled to their own god.

Structure 10 and Stela 20

Stela 20 stands on the first step of Structure 10's staircase. On the platform atop the broad staircase is a small, rectangular, two-room temple. Both the structure and its stela were created near the end of the Classic era. The stela contains two dates. One is January 16, 773 AD, the accession of Cobá's last known ruler, the Kaloomté Chan K'inich. It is significant that the wording about his accession does not say he "fastened the headband", the phrase used for centuries when someone became a kaloomté (king of kings). Instead, the new ruler was simply "seated", suggesting a drop in the status of both the office and the city.

The stela's other date is November 30, 780 AD, which marked the end of an important periodic cycle in the Maya calendar. This is the last recorded date at Cobá. The fact that no later dates have been found does not mean that, following 780, Cobá was without a ruler or became abandoned. No one knows when Chan K'inich died, or who his successor(s) might have been. The Classic era was exemplified by monuments like Stela 20. The fact that no stelae or other inscriptions with names and dates have been found means that the Classic era had ended. Cobá's population was declining and the city's importance was fading.

Drawing of the images and glyphs on Stela 20. This stela is the best preserved of the 34 yet discovered at Cobá, probably because it is also the latest. Kaloomté Chan K'inich stands in the traditional posture, dressed in the finery of a ruler. He carries the large, elaborate scepter that signifies his rulership, while standing on the backs of two bound captives. Two other captives, also bound, kneel on either side of his feet. During the 300 years that the Classic-era Cobá dynasty lasted, nearly all of the rulers displayed on stelae are shown with captives at their feet.

This was a propaganda device, adopted centuries before. By using the images of captives, Chan K'inich proclaims his prowess as Supreme Warrior. This imitates the stelae erected by Calakmul's powerful Kaan Dynasty rulers. Cobá had long maintained a close political and military alliance with the Kaan. In fact, there is evidence that Juunpiktok, who founded Cobá's dynasty in 494 AD, came to power with the aid of the Kaan (then based in Dzibanche). However, 44 years before this stela was erected, the Kaan Dynasty had been defeated and eradicated in 736 AD by Tikal. Thus, Chan K'inich's boast rings a bit hollow.

 

Structure C-12 and Stela 21

Structure 12 is a low, two-level platform with an internal chamber. Stela 21 was placed in front of the chamber's entrance, possibly as a way to seal it. The structure and its stela are located not far from Structure 10 and the Ixmoja pyramid. For a time, archeologists thought that the internal chamber had been a tomb. However, there were no human remains or grave good, only a small number of offerings. Structure 12 and Stela 21 were found during a 1930 archeological expedition. 

There are several possible reasons why the entrance to the chamber was sealed. The Maya believed that buildings and monuments possessed a divine "soul-like" essence. When a structure was no longer in use, it would be ritually "killed" or deactivated. Thus, the stela would have formed a lid to contain the structure's sacred energy. Alternatively, the sealing could have been an attempt to protect the offerings left inside. Finally, the placement of the stela could have signified a change from active use of the structure to its becoming a static monument to a past ruler.

Drawing of Stela 21. The heavily worn stela has carvings only on one side.  It stands 1.5m (4.9ft) tall and 0.71m (2.3ft) wide. The image is of a male ruler with a bound captive seated crosslegged on either side of his feet. The ruler wears high-backed sandals and has a long device hanging down from his neck. At the end of this device is a horizontal bar with three tubular beads extending from each end. Decorations like this were worn by rulers when they dressed as warriors and intended to take captives. 

The glyphs on the upper left portion of the stela's face are unreadable, so we don't know the name of the ruler or any dates. Like so many other stelae at Cobá, it is likely that Stela 21 was originally erected elsewhere in the city during the Classic era. Later, during the Post Classic, Structure 12 would have been erected and the stela moved to its current positions. This was a way of honoring the past glory of Cobá during an anxious period of decline and decay.

This completes Part 6 of my Cobá series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below. If you leave a question, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

Cobá Part 5- Ball Court 2 in Grupo D

 

Classic-era statue of a Maya ball player. The player is crouched on one knee, ready to use his upper arm or shoulder to receive the ball and propel it back down the field. The sculptor managed to convey the player's sense of tension as he poised for action. However, the sculptor exaggerated--probably for effect--the protective gear around his mid-section. There is no way a ball player dressed like this could have maintained the necessary speed and agility the game required. 

Part 3 of this series covered Grupo Cobá's Ball Court 1 and explained how the game was played and its deep social, political, and religious meanings. In this posting I will focus on Ball Court 2 in Grupo D, the largest and most important court at Cobá. In addition to its size, Ball Court 2 is important because of who built it and when. It is also significant for the large hieroglyph panel set into the court's sloping wall. This panel contains information about several key rulers in Cobá's Early Classic history.

Overview

Site map of Cobá showing the location of Ball Court 2.  Grupo D is located between Grupo Cobá on the west and Grupo Nohoch Mul on the east. Sacbe #4, one of Cobá's internal "white roads", runs between these two groups of structures. Ball Court 2 is located near the eastern end of Sacbe #4, where it is marked Juego de Pelota ("Ball Game"). Ball Court 1, also labeled as Juego de Pelota is located in Grupo Cobá, near the western end of Sacbe #4. To find the Cobá archeological zone in Yucatan, see Part 1 of this series.

The playing field

View of the Ball Court, looking east. Its structure is similar to Ball Court 1, with a relatively narrow alley running between two sloping walls. Each wall is topped by a stone ring about half-way down the court. Tourists in the alley provide a sense of scale. I haven't been able to determine the dimensions of this court, except that it is larger than Ball Court 1. On the top of each side of the court are are multiple rooms with rectangular columns. These were the  viewing areas set aside for the elite spectators of Cobá and those of the visiting team. These viewing areas were ancient versions of the "skyboxes" in modern stadiums.

Ball Court 2 was built by Ix Ch'ak Cheen, one of several powerful women who ruled Cobá during the Classic era. She was the first of Cobá's rulers to be awarded the title of kaloomte' ("Supreme Warrior" or "King of Kings"). This meant that her rule extended beyond Cobá to a broader realm of towns and cities. The achievement of this title was a statement that Cobá had emerged as a major player in the ancient Maya world. Recently, a large panel was discovered in another part of Cobá. Its glyphs indicate that Ix Ch'ak Cheen was connected to Ut Chanal of Dzibanche's Kaaan Dynasty, a major Maya power. 

Field marker in the alley between the sloping walls. This one can be found in the middle of the western end of the alley (see previous photo, lower right). Inside the circle is a figure that has been variously described as a decapitated man, a jaguar, or a squirrel. The function of the marker in the game is unclear. 

A weather-worn stone skull is situated in the center of the alley. In the photo showing the playing field, this marker is half-way down the alley, just to the left of the man wearing blue shorts. This marker, like the one in the previous photo, is probably a reference to sacrifice. In the Maya myth about the Hero Twins, their father Hun Hunahpu (the Maiz God) was decapitated after losing a ball game with the Lords of the Underworld (Xibalba). The Hero Twins' myth dates all the way back to Pre-Classic times (400 BC-100 AD), as much as a thousand years before this court was built.

Plaques on Ball Court's sloping walls

Two panels are set into the sloping wall on the court's south side. On the left is a small, heavily-worn panel containing what may be the image of a captive. On the right, under the stone ring, is a much larger panel containing more than 70 glyphs. These inscriptions provide historical information about early rulers, as well as the city's original ancient name. 

Note the stone ring at the top of the wall. Imagine the difficulty in propelling a rubber ball through such a small opening. Since the use of hands or feet by players was prohibited, passing a ball through the ring would have been a rare event. Consequently, the players would have scored in other ways, such as preventing the opposing team from returning the ball down the court.

The glyphs on the panel contain information about the city and its early rulers. Unlike other sites that we have visited in Mexico, Cobá's original name is known. The ancient name Ko-b'a-a appears at least three times on this panel. Archeologists disputed among themselves about whether Ko-b'a-a referred to a toponym (place name) or a supernatural being. However, epigraphers (people who study ancient glyphs) recently determined that this was the city's original name because it was used in the context of the arrival of the ruling dynasty to Cobá.

The glyphs on the panel also mention Junnpiktook, the founder of Cobá's Dynasty in 494 AD. The glyphs contain at least three dates. The first, 505 AD, is the date Juunpiktook dedicated Ball Court 1. The second, 573 AD, is the date when an unnamed successor dedicated Ball Court 2. The successor's name, Ix Ch'ak Cheen, was recently found on a different panel near the Ixmoja pyramid. She dedicated the Ball Court shortly before her death. The third date, 574 AD, refers to her successor, Kak' Ti' Balam. His wife was Ix Che'enal, a Kaan Dynasty princess, who was briefly kaloomte' before abdicating in favor of her husband. 

Plaque of a captive on the slope of the north wall. The captive is seen in profile, kneeling with his arms raised and bound at the wrist. Although in better condition than the captive image on the south wall, this panel is also badly worn from centuries of exposure. Human sacrifice was sometimes a part of the rituals associated with this deeply symbolic game. Those sacrificed were generally war captives but sometimes included players. Whether they were the losers or the winners of the game is a matter of dispute among archeologists. Although hard to believe from a modern perspective, human sacrifice was sometimes considered an honor in the ancient Maya world.

Dzibanche also displayed images of captives on its monuments. These were statements of power and military prowess. Their inclusion on Cobá's panels and stelae demonstrates the strong cultural influence of the Kaan Dynasty. That dynasty, first based in Dzibanche and later at Calakmul, was one of the two great powers during the Classic era. Its great rival was Tikal, in northern Guatemala. During their centuries-long struggle for dominance, both cities assembled broad coalitions of client states and allies. Cobá was allied to the Kaan Dynasty through political marriages like the one between Kak' Ti' Balam and Ix Che'enal. 

West end of Ball Court 2

Southwest corner of the ball court. The overall structure has four levels and includes two small stairways, one at this end and one at the east end. The stairway on this end has a large tree growing out of its steps. The six initial steps rise to a small platform. From the platform, more steps lead up to the top-level rooms lined with the rectangular columns. The staircases on the south half of the Ball Court are much smaller and less impressive than those on the northern half. This leads me to believe that this half was intended for the visiting team.

West end of the northern half of the court. There is a room with two columns on this end, possibly for the use of the officiating priests or for storage of game equipment. A semi-circular structure is attached to the wall in the right foreground. It has no apparent entrance, so its purpose is unclear. The sloping north wall of the court is visible above. The angle of a ball court's slope affected the speed of the ball when it bounced off. The sharper the angle, the greater the speed. In this case the angle is fairly gentle. At Chichen Itza, the Ball Court walls are vertical.

The north side of the Ball Court has a broad staircase. The existence of this grand staircase suggests that it was intended for large processions by Cobá's ruling elite. No such staircase exists on the southern half of the Ball Court, which again suggests that the southern half was intended for the visiting team's elite spectators. Similar to Ball Court 1, this grand staircase has thirteen steps, possibly related to the thirteen levels of heaven. Everything related to a ball court, and to the game itself, carried deep religious meaning.

East end of Ball Court 2

The east end of the Ball Court. The woman standing at the entrance of the alley provides a sense of scale. To the right is the northern side of the court, while the southern side can be seen in the distance. The large rectangular columns lining the top of the southern side supported a roof to protect the spectators from the sun or rain. The end of the southern structure contains a narrow set of steps that winds up to the top.

View of the eastern end of the southern half of the court. The steps leading up turn several times before they reach the top. There is only room for a single file of people to climb up the steps. This precluded any opportunity for the elite spectators on this side to mount a grand procession. Perhaps the design was intended as a bit of psychological warfare? The sloping wall of the court's northern half, also topped with columns, can be seen at the right side of the photo. While the  encroaching jungle seems to hem in the structures above, this area would have been clear of vegetation in ancient times.

A partially-excavated structure stands near the eastern end of the Ball Court's alley.. There is a broad, four-step staircase along the southern side. I have found only one mention of this structure in the literature, but no explanation of its purpose. Since it stands so close to the court, it is likely to have some relation to the game. Perhaps it was for the performance of rituals associated with the game. It also might have provided a slightly-elevated viewing area for lesser mortals who weren't allowed on the top levels of the court.

This completes Part 5 of my Cobá series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please remember to include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim