Guatemala Part 10b: Quirguá's Acropolis and intricately carved stone altars

Stairway to Heaven.  Above, the north staircase to Quiriguá's Acropolis stands out against the background of thick jungle surrounding the ancient Maya city. Unlike Quiriguá's Great Plaza (see Part 10a) with its many beautifully carved stelae, the Acropolis was not intended for public access or large gatherings. Maya acropoli were raised platforms, often superimposed over many previous layers. On Quiriguá's Acropolis stood palaces, temples, administrative centers and residences for the elite class of nobles, warriors, and priests. The rituals and other activities conducted here were meant to be shielded from the view of commoners. Most of the ruins of the Acropolis we see today were constructed by Jade Heaven (800-810 AD), Quiriguá's last ruler before the city succumbed to the general collapse of Maya civilization in the 9th Century.

In my first posting on Quiriguá, I focused on the Great Plaza and Cauac Sky, Quiriguá's greatest ruler. He took power in a coup d'etat against 18 Rabbit, his overlord from the powerful city-state of Copán, only 48k (30 mi) to the south. In this posting, I will show the Acropolis area and the great zoomorphic sculptures, many of which are found along its north side. I will also present a picture of the power relations and political landscape of the Classic Era Maya world that allowed the ruler of a relatively minor principality to seize and behead the king of a great state--and get away with it! For a map of the Maya world as it existed at the time of Quiriguá, click here. Quiriguá is located in the southeast corner of Guatemala, just north of the border with Honduras and a bit inland from the Caribbean Sea.


The Acropolis area.

Model of Quiriguá's plazas and Acropolis area. The open rectangular area in the background is the Great Plaza, seen last week. To the left center is a pyramid that faces due south toward the great staircase of the Acropolis. In between the pyramid and the staircase are parallel structures that form the two sides of the Ball Court.  The area around the Ball Court, bounded by northward thrusting arms of the Acropolis, is called the Ball Court Plaza. For an interactive map showing this area and some additional photos of the various sculpures, click here.

Although there were quite a number of Maya city states during the Classic Era (250-900 AD), the four most important were Tikal, Calakmul, Copán, and Palenque. Quiriguá was client-state of Copán, established as a commercial crossroad on the important trade routes along the Motogua River (west to east) and between Tikal and Copán (north to south). The two most powerful states ("superpowers" in modern terms) were Tikal and Calakmul, intense rivals for hundreds of years. Calakmul was the older power and claimed political and cultural descent from the great Pre-Classic Maya civilization based at El Mirador just south of Guatemala's present-day border with Mexico. El Mirador flourished from 600 BC to 100 AD, falling into a jungle ruin shortly before the beginning of the Classic Era. Some archaeologists believe that Calakmul was settled by elites who migrated there from the fallen El Mirador. If you check the Maya World map on the link, you can see that El Mirador lies approximately 1/2 way between Calakmul on the north and Tikal on the south.

Pyramid facing the Ball Court and the Acropolis' north staircase. This pyramid, known as structure 1A-3, is 7m (23 ft) high and measures 82.5m (271 ft) by 20m (66 ft). For unknown reasons, it was never finished. As with many of Mesoamerica's ruins, much of Quiriguá has yet to be uncovered.

Tikal arose during the El Mirador period and came into its own after that civilization fell. The rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul apparently intensified after Tikal's conquest by an army from faraway Teotihucan, north of present-day Mexico City. In 426 AD, a generation after that conquest, the ruler of Tikal sent an army south to take control of the areas north and south of the Motagua River near the present-day border between Guatemala and Honduras. These areas had been settled as early as 400 BC by non-Maya people. Their new rulers were "Mexicanized Maya" or may even have been full-blooded Teotihuacans. DNA from bones in an elite tomb in Copán that dates from this period shows that the ruler was of a different ethnicity from the local indigenous people. In addition, artifacts from his tomb show warriors dressed in the Teotihuacan style. The lord of Quiriguá was installed as a sub-ruler or vassal of the new Maya/Teotihuacan king of Copán three days after the Copán king took power. Thus began the long period of Quiriguá's political and economic subservience. Both Copán and Quirguá were part of the constellation of allies and subject cities accumulated by Tikal as part of its superpower rivalry with Calakmul.

The Great Staircase and northeast corner of the Acropolis, looking south from the Ball Court. The building on top is named Stucture 1B5 and was subdivided into elite residences. 1B-5 was constructed very late in Quiriguá's history, during the reign of Jade Heaven, the last recorded king.

Just as Tikal was establishing a complex set of alliances, either by warfare or diplomacy, so was Calakmul. In fact, that city followed a consistent policy of encircling Tikal with a hostile network of allies. Various of these allied cities changed hands, and elite groups were driven out or returned to power, all over a long period of time. Palenque, a Tikal ally in present-day Mexico's Chiapas State to the west, was seized by Calakmul several times. In 562 AD, Calakmul dealt Tikal a decisive defeat and the latter city was eclipsed for 130 years. Tikal eventually revived, and in 695 AD delivered a defeat to Calakmul from which it never fully recovered. Even so, it continued as a powerful and dangerous enemy to Tikal well into the Post-Classic era. Any student of the long struggle between ancient Carthage and Rome, or of Renaissance Italy during Machiavelli's time, or even of the modern political machinations between the United States and the old Soviet Union, will find much of this ancient Maya history startlingly familiar.

The Great Staircase and the Acropolis' platform 1A-1. The Great Staircase leads up to an enormous platform that forms the northern part of the Acropolis complex. The platform measures 100 by 85 meters (300 by 279 ft). The platform was built over a period of 20 years by Cauac Sky. It was constructed from cobbles from the Motogua River and paved with stone slabs.

While Copán itself was not subservient to Tikal, it was definitely an ally. Calakmul sought a way to weaken Tikal by weakening Copán. The man ruling Copán at the time was Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, also known as 18 Rabbit. He was the 13th ruler of the dynasty established when Tikal's army had conquered the non-Maya inhabitants of Copán back in 426 AD. 18 Rabbit reigned from 695-738 AD and was Copán's greatest king. He was very powerful in the southern Maya area of that time. 

Acropolis plaza (looking south from the north Acropolis platform). The plaza is surrounded by palaces, temples, and administrative complexes. The plaza's grassy rectangle is set down .5m (2 ft) into the Acropolis' surface, with several steps leading down into it. At the south (far end) are the ruins of the palaces of Cauac Sky and Quiriguá's last ruler, Jade Heaven. A broad stairway leads up to the palaces, separated in two places by fenced-off areas.

In 724 AD, 18 Rabbit appointed K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat (Cauac Sky) as Quiriguá's ruler. Cauac Sky, you will remember from Part 10a of this series, was the man whose face appears on most of the beautiful stelae at Quiriguá. 18 Rabbit was getting old at this time, and he may not have paid close enough attention to how ambitious this young man really was. 

Cauac Sky's earliest claim to fame. Commissioned in 734 AD, the large stone sculpture seen above, called Altar M, is the earliest known monument dedicated by Cauac Sky. The script on the shell of the turtle/crocodile contains the title k'ul ajaw. This was Cauac Sky's first use of this title for himself, and it was an important political statement.

Cauac Sky apparently chafed at his subordinate role as ajaw (lord), and lusted to become k'ul ajaw (holy lord) a title indicating independent rulership. In fact, after 10 years in office, in 734 AD, he began using the emblem for k'ul ajaw, a fact that no doubt would have brought a swift reaction from 18 Rabbit in his younger days. Nothing was done to curb Cauac Sky, however. 

A sloping wall called a "talud" separates sections of the staircase up to Cauac Sky's palace. On the talud are the remains of a relief sculpture, a pair of wings separating an emblem of some sort, possibly that of Cauac Sky. The talud itself is an architectural feature of Teotihuacan, perhaps a survival of a style imported hundreds of years before from there, via Tikal.

As his ambitions grew, Cauac Sky realized that he could never, on his own, defeat powerful Copán and gain his independence. In true Machiavellian fashion, he looked around for an ally and protector whose interests would be served by the humbling of Copán, but who also would be too far away to threaten the independence he so desired. Calakmul, seeking to weaken Tikal, was happy to undermine Tikal's ally, Copán. In 736 AD, two years after usurping the title of k'ul ajaw, Cauac Sky invited the ruler of Calakmul to pay him a visit. Since arrangements for a state visit like this don't happen overnight, it is possible that he initiated contact with Calakmul not long after he declared himself to be k'ul ajaw.

On the west side of the Acropolis plaza are three structures. They are reached by the broad 8-step staircase that surrounds the plaza on three sides. The these structures are 1B3 on the left, 1B4 on the right, and a much older wall between them, now covered by a corrugated metal roof. This wall contains a mosaic frieze with depictions of the sun god, Kinich Ahau.

While nothing specific is known of the talks between Cauac Sky and Wamaw K'awiil, the ruler of Calakmul, the results suggest an agreement that Calakmul would supply troops to support an action against Copán, and in addition would offer protection against any later retaliation. Such a deal was typical of political alliances Calakmul arranged while constructing its encirclement of Tikal.

Structure 1B-5, located on the raised platform on the north end of the Acropolis plaza. This may have contained elite residences, or administrative offices. The door shown above was very low, requiring a hands-and-knees approach. However, the bottom of the doorway may be buried well below the surface.

Although elderly by now, 18 Rabbit was still active enough to lead an expedition whose purpose was to gather captives for sacrifice back at Copán. Apparently he wanted to celebrate the completion of a new ball court. He set off in April of 738 AD, but seems to have been ambushed by Cauac Sky with the possible help of warriors from Calakmul. Several of Copán's wooden deities, typically carried into battle on palanquins, were captured and burned. That was a significant psychological blow to Copán, but the real disaster was the capture of 18 Rabbit himself.

A shrine to the ancestors containing an elite tomb, east side of the Acropolis plaza. The structure above is called 1B-6. Such shrines were typical of Tikal, a further indication of that city's influence on Quiriguá. In the tomb, archaeologists found the skeleton of a man with jade-inlaid teeth. A bead of jade was in his mouth. Ceramic offerings place the tomb in the Early-Classic period. Behind the shrine, thick jungle rises.

18 Rabbit was dragged back to Quiriguá and publicly beheaded in the main plaza 3 days after his capture. Such an event would no doubt have entailed a great ceremony with warriors in full dress and thousands of people in attendance. Cauac Sky had won independence from Copán, but could he keep it? Would 18 Rabbit's successor react in fury and destroy Cauac Sky, and Quiriguá with him, for the killing of Copán's greatest ruler in such an underhanded manner by man who was supposed to be a loyal follower?

A humble drain performed an important function. The general area around around Quiriguá is low and swampy. The climate is humid and rainfall can be heavy. At least once in its ancient history, Quiriguá was flooded by the Motagua river, which left behind several feet of silt. The ancient engineers who built Quirguá needed to ensure the runoff of excess water, and drains like this helped.

The death of 18 Rabbit paralyzed Copán. His successor, K'ak' Joplaj Chan K'awiil was not installed until 39 days after 18 Rabbit's death. In fact, very little is known of the successor or of this period because all new building, particularly that of monuments with inscriptions, ceased for 17 years. Oddly, Cauac Sky did not go on to seize power in Copán. He remained in Quiriguá and there is no indication of any physical damage to either city as a result of his coup d'etat. In addition to the internal chaos caused by the death of 18 Rabbit, his successor probably feared retaliation from Calakmul should he attempt revenge upon Quiriguá. Cauac Sky's Machiavellian diplomacy seems to have paid off.


The Zoomorphs and their Altars

A snarling face, with eyes bulging and teeth bared, graces the north end of Zoomorph O. A zoomorph is a large boulder carved in the shape of a mythical monster, usually combining two or more animals. Zoomorph O is part crocodile and part mountain lion. Notice that the headdress of the face and all the area around it are covered by Maya text. This zoomorph was dedicated in 790 AD by Sky Xul, Cauac Sky's successor who ascended to the throne in 785 AD.

Copán suffered a significant decline after 18 Rabbit's execution. Not only did it lose its most illustrious ruler, it lost economic control over the vital crossroads that was Quiriguá. Rich beds of jade existed upstream on either side of the Motagua River. Jade was the most valuable commodity in the Mesoamerican world, and traders traveled down the river to the Caribbean, passing through the southern outskirts of Quiriguá. In addition, Copán lost its direct northward trade route to Tikal, that also passing through Quiriguá. The severe reduction of revenue may have played a role in the 17-year cessation of monument building in Copán. The flip side of this coin was that Quiriguá gained everything that Copán lost: an illustrious and long-lived ruler and great wealth.

In front of some zoomorphs are altars. The the low flat stone of the surface of this altar--relating to Zoomorph O--is carved with text and a beautifully rendered dancing figure. This relationship between zoomorphs and altars is found especially at the base of the Great Staircase leading up to the north side of the Acropolis.

Cauac Sky decided to make Quirguá the showplace of his rulership. He began a building campaign that lasted throughout the 47 years he ruled after his triumph over 18 Rabbit. He created the immense Great Plaza, the largest in the Maya world. The Acropolis was expanded and he built fine structures on top. At the end of every katun (five year interval on the Maya calendar) he put up another stelae, celebrating his rule, boasting of his accomplishments, and tying his reign to great figures of the past. He also commissioned zoomorphs and altars, although the best of these appear to have been the work of his successor Sky Xul. 

Detail on Altar to Zoomorph O. Notice the fluid and graceful movement of the dancer and the intricate details of his clothing and jewelry. Carvings like this represent the height of Maya skill and creativity.

Cauac Sky and his successors also commissioned many of the Zoomorphs at Quiriguá. The style used is distinctly that of Copán, indicating that he may have captured some of 18 Rabbit's craftsmen, or perhaps he and his successors lured them away from Copán with promises of lucrative work. In any case, it indicates Quirguá's continued strong cultural identification with its former overlord city.

Zoomorph G is part jaguar, part snake. The inscriptions on the top and sides are carved in panels that may represent the scales of a snake. The text describes the death and burial of Cauac Sky. Sky Xul, his successor, dedicated it to his illustrious predecessor. The great Cauac Sky appears to be emerging from the mouth of the jaguar face. The jaguar is the third largest of the world's great cats, exceeded in size only by the African lion and the Indian tiger. It is a powerful predator and, not surprisingly, became a great religious and political symbol to people in the Mesoamerican world, all the way back to the Olmecs, the "Mother of Cultures".

Cauac Sky had only two known successors, Sky Xul (785-800? AD) and Jade Heaven (800-810 AD). After the long rule of Cauac Sky, these were relatively short reigns. Sky Xul ordered the creation of the greatest of the zoomorphs and altars, while Jade Heaven made some alternations in the Acropolis. 

Zoomorph P (south side). This huge 20-ton boulder contains what is perhaps the masterpiece of zoomorph carving at Quiriguá and one of the great masterpieces of Mesoamerican art. It was commissioned by Sky Xul in 795 AD, not long before his death. The intricate carving covers the whole of the surface, excepting the base.

Throughout the long reign of Cauac Sky and during that of Sky Xul, Quirigua continued to enjoy the benefits of its control over the trade crossroads it occupied. However, clouds were gathering over the Maya world. Incessant wars, soil exhaustion, deforestation, overpopulation, disease, and occasional earthquakes or other natural disasters all combined to weaken the Maya city-states, including Quiriguá. 

Zoomorph P (north side) Sky Xul celebrated his own rule with this carving of himself sitting erect between the jaws of a hybrid crocodile monster. Archaeologists have discovered traces of pigment on this sculpture, leading them to believe that it was originally painted red, as were many of the monuments and structures in Quiriguá.

Quiriguá depended not only on its own resources, but on the trade along the Motagua River between the interior of what is now Guatemala and the Caribbean, as well as that which flowed north and south between Tikal and the other cities of the Petén and Copán. As those cities successively went through collapse and abandonment, trade dried up, and with it Quiriguá's main reason for existence.

Altar to Zoomorph P. Close by Zoomorph P is the altar. It shows, among other intricately carved subjects, a god figure leaping from a crack in the earth. Text on this altar and on the zoomorph itself describe the founding of Quiriguá in 426 AD, shortly after the Maya/Teotihuacan conquerers established Copán.

After Jade Heaven's short, 10-year reign, no other rulers are recorded for Quiriguá. The materials used in Jade Heaven's monuments appear to be inferior to those of his predecessors and his stelae are stunted. Quiriguá managed to maintain its independence from Copán during this period, possibly because Copán was undergoing similar decline. Relations between the two cities were apparently good. In 810 AD, when the last known inscription in Quiriguá was carved, it recorded the visit of the ruler of Copán who helped celebrate the ending of a five-year katun. After that came the silence that engulfed all of the Classic-Era Maya world of the 9th Century. Soon, the ravenous jungle began to creep over the ruins of Quiriguá, Copán, and all the rest. The only sounds remaining became those of the birds and the howler monkeys in the forest canopy above.

This completes my postings on Quiriguá and on Guatemala. It's been a long run, and if you followed the whole series, I appreciate your patience. I hope you have enjoyed Guatemala as much as we did when we visited in March. If you'd like to comment, please use the Comments section below, or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Guatemala Part 10a: The stunning stelae of Quiriguá

Massive, beautifully-carved stone monuments led to Quiriguá's World Heritage Site status. Quiriguá's Stela F shows the face and elaborate headdress of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat, also known as Cauac Sky, Quiriguá's greatest ruler. The stela was erected in 761 AD. Standing 7.4m (24 ft.) above the current surface, it is the second tallest monument in Quiriguá. After our visit to Tikal, our Caravan Tour stopped at the ruins of this ancient Maya commercial crossroads. But before we get into Quirguá's wonderful sculptural remains, a word about our journey.


Getting there

Sunset over Pentenchel lagoon, near Lago Petén Itza. After our tour of Tikal (see previous 2 postings) we returned to Hotel Villa Maya for dinner and a night's rest before embarking on the all-day journey back to Guatemala City. The hotel sits on the bank of the lagoon and provides a wonderful view of the water and abundant wildlife. We had arrived in the pitch-black jungle darkness the previous night, so this was our first (and last) sunset over the lagoon. It was worth the wait.

Folklorico dancers entertained us after dinner at the hotel. Jorge, our Caravan Tour Director, arranged for a local group of high school students to perform a series of traditional dances. This sort of performance is called a Ballet Folklórico, and is very similar to acts we have seen in Mexico. Despite their youth, the dancers were well-practiced and gave a beautiful show.

Where continents collide. This rather mundane-looking bridge actually marks a very significant spot in the world. It crosses the Sarstoon River, the bed of which is part of a fault line system. The fault line running under the bridge marks the spot where the North and South American continents collide. This fault line system is the reason why southern Guatemala is thick with volcanoes and subject to massive earthquakes. The bridge was a little bumpy, but fortunately nothing else rocked us as we crossed.

Rio Dulce marina. Rio Dulce (the "Sweet River") empties Lago Izabal and runs to the Caribbean in southeastern Guatemala. Sailboaters travel up the river to Lago Isabal, just as pirates used to during the 16th-18th Centuries. A small fort still stands where the river joins the lake, to protect what used to be an important colonial trade point. Our tour was originally scheduled to stop here on the way to Tikal, but a lengthy labor dispute on the highway prevented this. The town of Fronteras, sitting at one end of the bridge spanning the river, is an important vegetable market for the local area. Many Maya farmers still paddle their product to the market in dugout canoes called cayucos.

Dining (literally) on the river. A pier juts out over the water, covered by individual palapas. Under each palapa is a table for diners. Steps leading down to the water allow those inclined to take a dip while waiting for their food.  Rio Dulce has become famous among Caribbean boaters for its hospitality and laid-back lifestyle. After crossing the river, we continued south, almost to the border of Honduras. The lush, flat land was covered with banana plantations. This is United Fruit Company territory (or Chiquita Brands as it is now known). You will recall that they were the company that played such an important role in fostering the 1954 CIA coup d'etat that ousted a democratically elected government and installed a brutal military junta that eventually murdered 200,000 people, most of them innocent Maya. United Fruit banana groves surround Quiriguá on all sides. To the company's credit, they created an archaeological zone around the ruins when they bought the land more than 100 years ago.


The Great Plaza of Quiriguá

Quiriguá's Great Plaza was the largest of the ancient Maya region. The Great Plaza is the northernmost of 3 plazas. It measures 325m (1,066 ft.) from north to south, and 150m (492 ft.) east to west. Above, you are looking north from the Acropolis, which lies on the southern end of the plaza. The embankment seen in the background below the trees marks the northern limit of the plaza. The embankment itself is one of the oldest features in Quiriguá. The tall palapa in the center foreground, and those in the background, were built to protect stelae and the other stone sculptures located here. This vast plaza was created late in Quiriguás history by the ruler Cauac Sky, just after he had won independence from the great Maya city of Copán, 48k (30 mi.) to the south. In fact, most of what can be seen in Quiriguá today was created during Cauac Sky's 61-year reign.

A huge ceiba tree stands in the middle of the Great Plaza.  Ceiba trees have been sacred to the Maya from the earliest times, representing the connection between the underworld (the roots) and heaven (the canopy). In this photo, you are looking south toward the Acropolis. Cauac Sky created his huge plaza to display his power to the thousands of people who gathered here. However, the city's population was relatively small, raising many questions about where these throngs came from. Archaeologists speculate that Cauac Sky stitched together a political patchwork of alliances among other towns and cities around Quiriguá in his bid for independence from Copán. He would have used this plaza to bring together people not only from Quiriguá but from all the allied communities.


The Stelae of Quiriguá's Great Plaza

The image of Cauac Sky appears on most of the stelae in the Great Plaza. Above, you see the north side of Stela D, built in 766 AD. He is holding a manikin scepter in his left hand and a shield in his right. Nearly all of the stelae have twin--but not identical--faces, one on the north side and one on the south. The east and west sides are used for Maya script or depictions of the gods.

Beautiful panels cover the sides of Stela D. These carvings of various Maya gods have been described as among the finest Maya relief sculpture ever made. The style of the carvings and stelae are distinctly that of Copán, leading archaeologists to speculate that Cauac Sky may have captured some sculptors when he defeated Copán's king and gained Quiriguá's independence.

Stela D also contains this odd panel. In the upper right quadrant, a king seen in profile seems to peer out of a modern television screen. He wears a rather modest headdress, but has elaborate earrings. His gaze is directed toward what appears to be a human leg being consumed by some sort of snake monster.

Stela E is the largest stone monument of its kind in all the Maya region. The shaft rises 8m (26.5 ft) above ground and extends another 2.6m (8.5 ft.) beneath the surface. This gives it a total length of 10.6m (35 ft.). It is all of one piece, made of sandstone, and weighs 65 tons. Even beyond the wonderful sculpture that covers it, one must consider the feat of engineering accomplished by these 8th Century AD people. The stone originated in a quarry many kilometers away and had to be cut in one piece without the use of metal tools. Then, without the use of draft animals or the wheel, it had to be moved to its present site and raised to a standing position. Archaeologists think that the Maya may have floated the huge stone down the nearby Motagua river on a raft. Even with that, getting it to the river and then from the river to the final site must have been a mindbogglingly difficult task. Of course, many difficulties can be overcome if you are a ruler with the power to order human sacrifices.

Not all the stelae were of such staggering dimensions. Stela J is of more modest proportions but it still rises 5m (15 ft.) above the surface. This stela portrays Cauac Sky as beardless and younger, perhaps because it was erected in a slightly earlier period, 756 AD. Later stelae show him with a goatee beard and headdresses that get more and more elaborate as the years go by. Cauac Sky raised new stelae at 5 year intervals according to cycles in the Maya calendar called "katuns". The sides of Stela J are covered with Maya script detailing the capture and execution of 18 Rabbit, the great Copán king he seized in an apparent surprise attack in 738 AD. In modern terms, we would describe what happened as a coup d'etat rather than a war. Cauac Sky brought 18 Rabbit back to Quiriguá and ordered him to be publicly decapitated in the plaza, thus ensuring Quiriguá's independence. Interestingly, 18 Rabbit was the very overlord who, in 724 AD, had appointed Cauac Sky to his job as ruler of Quiriguá. Apparently one should pick one's subordinates carefully. Stela J also mentions that Cauac Sky was the 14th ruler in his dynasty. There were 17 in all, before the general Maya collapse and cities like Quiriguá were abandoned.

Stela U is one of the older monuments. It is not clear when the stela was erected, but the date 480 AD is mentioned in the monument's script. From the decyphered date, it is possible the king pictured above may have been the one known as Turtle Shell, the third in Cauac Sky's dynasty. There is also a reference in the script to a ceremony presided over by the king of Copán, indicating that the stela pre-dates Cauac Sky. In addition to the natural erosion on the face, the stela was broken at the knees by some unknown enemy who attacked Quiriguá after the stela was raised. Destroying or defacing stelae like this was typical of the war practices of the time. The style of the stela comes from Tikal, showing how far south the influence of that great city stretched. In fact, both Quiriguá and Copán are believed to have been originally settled by Maya elites from Tikal who moved into the area and came to dominate a local population the majority of whom were non-Maya. The original height of the stela was 2.7m (9 ft.).  

Erected in 775 AD, Stela C was one of Cauac Sky's later monuments. The Maya script on the side panels contains a considerable amount of information. The are references to the date 455 AD and to a king named Tutuum Yohl K'inich, who may have been the 2nd in Cauac Sky's dynasty, 300 years before. The script also references the date August 13, 3114 BC, when--according to the Maya calendar and mythology--the current creation was begun and the gods placed in order. The Maya calendar runs in cycles with each successive creation destroyed at the cycle's end. Some people believe that the Maya calendar shows that the current cycle will end December 21, 2012 at 11:11 AM. This may be a problem if you have any holiday parties planned for later that month. My own suspicion is that the 2012 date will have something less of an impact than the disaster we all remember occurring when Y2K finally rolled around.

Profile of a big-nosed monster-god on the base of Stela C. Many of the stelae contain monster faces on their bases. I was impressed by the elaborate detail and graceful carving even on elements that were not central to the overall sculpture.

Stela A, another portrait of Cauac Sky, stands near the entrance of Quiriguá. It was erected in 775 AD and dedicated on December 29 of that year, the same day that Stela C was dedicated. This is one of the latest of Cauac Sky's stelae and the king is shown wearing a goatee beard and an incredibly elaborate headdress. 

Maya script from the side of Stela A. The inscription on the side of the stela indicates that Cauac Sky was in his "5th Katun of life", meaning that he was between 79 and 98 years old at the time. This was quite elderly for a period when commoner's lifespans were probably in the 40s. He came to power in 724 AD and died in 785, an extraordinary 61-year reign. 

Detail from the script on Stela A. Notice the symbol of the hand with the thumb and forefinger pressed together. The 3 dots to the right of the hand are part of the Maya number system, which was based on dots (indicating "1") and horizontal bars (indicating "5"). Unlike the modern number system based on 10 digits, the Maya counted by 20s. Their mathematicians made a major advance with the invention of the concept of "0". Western civilizations did not achieve this until after the the end of the Classical Maya period, when Arabs built their Middle Eastern empires in the 8th Century. Neither the Romans nor the Greeks ever came up with the concept of "0".  Maya script was a combination of abstract symbols and pictographs and contained elements that were both phonetic and symbolic. The combination made it very difficult for archaeologists to decypher the script. It was not until the 1970s that the Maya code was finally cracked. Many Maya inscriptions remain undecyphered.

Cauac Sky, up close and personal. Fragments of paint pigment remaining on some of the stelae indicate that they were probably painted blood red, the color of fertility and sacrifice. Although most of the stelae have at least one portrait of Cauac Sky and sometimes twin portraits, the carvings are not identical, even on the same monument. Headdresses vary greatly and different gods are emphasized on different monuments. Although the stelae are wonderful works of art, they are best understood as political posters with a message. 

A modern Maya altar is shaded by the large ceiba tree in the Great Plaza. Maya still perform ceremonies here. These usually involve chanting, singing, playing musical instruments, and the burning of copal incense and other offerings. Although Maya religious practices have changed since the ancient days, many beliefs persist, including reverence toward the sacred ceiba tree. Human sacrifices are rare, mostly of random tourists who straggle off the main paths (just kidding...).

This concludes the first of 2 postings on Quiriguá. The next part--the last of my Guatemala series--will take a look at the Acropolis area and some of the huge, exquisitly-carved boulders that portray various natural and mythical animals. Thank you for visiting my blog. I hope you have enjoyed this posting. If you would like to leave a comment, please do so in the Comments section below or email me directly.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

Guatemala Part 9b: Tikal's jungle pyramids

Two tourists are dwarfed by the soaring Templo V. After the impressive monuments, palaces, and tombs of the Great Plaza, I wondered how much the rest of Tikal could offer that would be worth a hike through the jungle in the growing heat. How wrong I was! In addition to Templo V (shown above), this second posting on Tikal will focus on Templo IV (the largest pyramid in Tikal), the Plaza of the Seven Temples, the Lost World Complex, and Complex Q. For a map showing these areas in relation to each other, click here. Again, I would like to stress that even including all of this, what we saw barely scratched the surface of Tikal's wonders. If you have the opportunity, plan to spend at least a couple of full days here. Unless otherwise noted through the various links, the information I present here comes from William R. Coe's excellent "Tikal: A handbook of the ancient Maya Ruins", or from local pamphlets I picked up at the Tikal visitor center.

Jungle encounters:

Coatimundi enjoys lunch, warmed by a ray of sunlight. As we walked through the jungle, we often encountered some of its permanent residents, such as this coatimundi. His size is about that of a large house cat. As he chewed, I was able to glimpse his rather fearsome-looking fangs. Although coatimundis appear rather friendly, I hesitated to get in range of this one's jaws. Although this little guy was alone at the time, they like to travel in groups of a dozen or so.

Bromeliad thrives on the side of a handy forest tree. This one was starting to bloom, as you can see from the red flower. Bromeliads trap water in their long, trough-like leaves and provide homes for many jungle animals, including frogs, slugs, and spiders. After we left the Great Plaza, we walked through a cathedral-like tunnel of green, with little shafts of sunlight filtering down to the jungle floor as if from stained-glass windows set high in the canopy above. The sounds of the forest were all around us. All this left us unprepared for our encounter with Temple V.

Templo V, a musical interlude

A huge temple looms as eerie music drifts around us. We rounded a bend in the trail and were suddenly confronted by the awesome staircase of this 58m (190 ft) giant. Archaeologists place the construction of this pyramid around 600 AD, making it the first of Tikal's great temple pyramids. Templo V is higher by more than 15m (50 ft) than either the Temple of the Great Jaguar (Templo I) or the Temple of the Moon (Templo II). Oddly, Templo V is the only pyramid at Tikal where no tomb has yet been discovered. The tomb of Animal Skull, the ruler who built it, was found in the North Acropolis. As I stood, rooted with astonishment and fumbling with my camera, I again heard the soft, eerie notes of some wind instrument. Examining the temple more closely, I looked for the source of the music. Finally, using my telephoto as a telescope, I spotted a small figure near the top of the structure.

Summoning ancient Maya gods? A young man sat at the very entrance of the temple that tops the pyramid, playing what appeared to be a recorder, a woodwind instrument related to the flute. Instead of holding the instrument to the side and blowing across a flute hole, the musician blows directly into one end. Recorders were popular from the Middle Ages through the Baroque period. The lack of a tomb is not the only oddity of Templo V. The temples surmounting most of the other pyramids of Tikal have three successive rooms, positioned so that a person has to step up from one to the next. Templo V has only one room, measuring .76m (2.5 ft) wide. Surprisingly, the rear wall of the room is 4.6m (15 ft) thick. As archaeologist William Coe mused, "perhaps never was so much built to provide so little floor space". Why? No one knows. It is just another of the many mysteries of this ancient city, lost for so long in the heart of the Petén jungle.


Templo IV, Tikal's largest pyramid

A wooden stairway switches back and forth up the heavily forested side of Templo IV.  Although it is the largest of all Tikal's pyramids (70m or 229 ft), very little of the structure has been unearthed. It is easy to discount this giant when approaching it because only the temple and roof comb are visible. The rest could well be a steep, jungle hill if you didn't know better. In fact, from the base of the staircase, you can hardly see the temple on top. The photo above shows only a part of the actual staircase. It is a long climb up. Although there are some with greater volume, Templo IV is the tallest of all such ancient structures in the New World. Templo IV is sometimes called the Temple of the Two Headed Snake and archaeologists estimate its construction date at approximately 745 AD.

Temple and roof comb atop Templo IV's pyramid. Tourists carefully step along narrow stone paths after reaching the base of the temple at the top of the pyramid. As with other temples at Tikal this one was partially covered by scaffolding to enable repair work. Why make the long climb, if so little of the structure has been divested of its jungle cloak? In short: the view!

Seen from atop Templo IV, Petén's jungle stretches away in every direction. Pyramid roof combs provide the only visible evidence of the massive metropolis that once thrived below the forest canopy. In the center-right you can see the roof comb of Templo III, a site we didn't visit. To its left are the combs of Templos I & II. Given the difficulty of traversing this jungle on foot, as well as its vast size, it is easy to understand how experienced explorers like John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood could pass nearby in the 1840s, completely unaware of Tikal's existence. It was not until 1848 that Guatemala's government sent an expedition to check out the rumors of a lost city and discovered Tikal.

Telephoto shot of Templo II (right) and Templo I (left rear). If you look closely you can just make out the face and shoulders of the figure of the priest-king on Templo I's roof comb. In 800 AD, the peak of the Tikal's Classic era, all of the jungle for miles around would have been cleared for buildings and fields. The city at that time had an area of at least 9.6 sq. km (6 sq. mi) and may have covered as much as 75.6 sq. km (47 sq. mi.), with a population of 60,000. Although I was facing thick jungle rather than desert, I was reminded of Percy Bysshe Shelley's poem "Ozymandius" as I looked out across the endless forest canopy.

I met a traveler from an antique land

Who said: "Two vast and trunkless legs of stone

Stand in the desert...Near them, on the sand,

Half sunk a shattered visage lies, whose frown,

And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,

Tell that its sculptor well those passions read

Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,

The hand that mocked them and the heart that fed;

And on the pedestal these words appear:

'My name is Ozymandius, King of Kings,

Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!'

Nothing beside remains. Round the decay

of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare

The lone and level sands stretch far away."

Top of a South Acropolis pyramid peeps above the foliage. This was another complex we didn't visit. It is largely unexcavated, but its origins may extend far back into the pre-Classic period. Archaeologists can look forward to many years of excavation on this extensive and almost untouched site.


Plaza of the Seven Temples

Palace at the south end of the Plaza of the Seven Temples. Although the plaza and some of its structures date far back into pre-Classic times (600 BC-250 AD), the structure above is one of 3 palaces constructed in the late Classic period (700-900 AD), almost 1000 years later. The Plaza of the Seven Temples, and the Lost World Complex to which it adjoins, are some of the oldest areas of Tikal, and accordingly have some of the thickest concentrations of ruins.

The center of the seven temples for which the plaza gained its name. The temples sit on an embankment in a row along the east side of the rectangular plaza. This one (#4 from either end) has been restored. The others have been partially unearthed but otherwise left in their ruined state. The palm-thatched palapa roof protects the interior carvings of the temple. The plaza was open and park-like, but still shaded by the tall trees scattered around. It was getting to be mid-day and the shade was welcome.

Trio of temples to the left of the central temple. There are 3 other almost identical temples to the right of temple #4. The Seven Temples face west, directly across the Plaza to the back side of the adjoining Lost World Complex.


The  Lost World Complex

Back side of the Lost World complex from the Plaza of the Seven Temples. The west side of the Plaza of the Seven Temples adjoined the back side of the Lost World Complex. The structure above is sometimes called the Temple of the Skulls. Between 500 BC and 250 AD (the start of the Classic era) the Lost World functioned as an observatory. Then it became a ceremonial center and royal burial place that rivaled the North Acropolis. The Lost World Complex is also important because it provides an architectural and historical link between Tikal and the great city of Teotihuacan far to the north in the Valley of Mexico, about 48.3km (30 mi.) north of present-day Mexico City.

Temple built in Teotihuacan style. This structure, dating from the 4th Century AD, is sometimes called the Temple of Talud Tablero (Panel and Slope), an architectural style clearly associated Teotihuacan. There is evidence that a substantial number of Teotihuacans lived in the area immediately around the Lost World Complex. This was not unusual. Teotihuacan was a great commercial state with trade connections to both the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, and from Honduras to New Mexico in the US. The Zapotec capitol of Monte Alban in present day Oaxaca, Mexico also contained a substantial population of Teotihuacans. The city of Teotihuacan itself was divided into neighborhoods populated by people from a variety of Mesoamerican areas, including a Maya sector. From the period of 100 AD to 600 AD, Teotihuacan was the largest and most powerful state in all Mesoamerica, with a population that grew to approximately 200,000. Apparently Teotihuacan's power was based on military conquest as well as trade.

Palapa protects the unearthed top of the small temple in the Lost World Complex. In some cases, archaeologists seem to have left structures largely buried to protect them. Ancient Maya records from the late 4th Century AD indicate that Teotihuacan conquered Tikal, possibly with the help of the resident population of Teotihuacans. The Maya king of Tikal, called Chak Tok Ich'aak (Great Jaguar Paw) was killed on January 14, 378 AD, apparently after being captured by invading Teotihuacans under their general Siyah K'ak' (Fire is Born). Chak Tok Ich'aak was apparently revered by his people, even after (or perhaps because of) his execution by invaders. His palace was never covered over with other buildings but was maintained intact for centuries as a sacred monument. Even with local help, the Teotihuacan conquest was quite an amazing feat of arms, since the two capitals were 1014 km (630 miles) apart, separated by great mountain ranges and vast stretches of thick jungle. Not until the arrival of the conquistador Pedro de Alvarado in 1524 AD would a conquerer again travel such a distances in Mesoamerica.

The Great Pyramid of the Lost World. Standing 30.5m (100 ft) tall, this was one of the greatest structures of the pre-Classic era when it was built. It achieved its final form during the rule of Chak Tok Ich'aak, the king killed by the Teotihuacans. After defeating Tikal's army and executing its king, Siyah K'ak' installed Yax Nuun Ayiin (First Crocodile), a son of the Teotihuacan ruler, as the new king of Tikal in 379 AD. We know all this because archaeologist David Stuart deciphered Tikal's Stela 31 in 1998, revealing the answer to a question that has puzzled archaeologists ever since they first noticed Teotihuacan's strong influence on Tikal. The clincher was the discovery of a symbol showing an owl with a spear. It was the symbol for the ruler for whom the general Siyah K'ak' worked. Archaeologists promptly dubbed the unnamed ruler Spearthrower Owl. This symbol was not only distinctly non-Maya, but it appears in Teotihuacan itself as a symbol for the city.

Jungle looms over the remains of a ruined palace in the Lost World Complex. The fast-growing jungle constantly threatens to swallow up Tikal's ruins. Spearthrower Owl's son, Yax Nuun Ayiin, promptly married into the dynasty of his executed Maya predecessor. This was the move of a smart ruler sitting on the throne of a newly conquered people far from his own home. It helped mute opposition to the succession of his son Siyaj Chan K'awiil. Although he was the King of Tikal from 379-411 AD, Yax Nuun Ayiin remained the vassal of his father, the ruler of Teotihuacan, at least until Spearthrower Owl died. Yax Nuun Ayiin's son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil, ruled from 411-456. It is not clear what relationship Tikal had to Teotihuacan after that. Teotihuacan itself abruptly declined in 600 AD, when its temples and elite palaces were destroyed in an apparent revolt by the commoners. Within 100 years or so, Teotihuacan was an abandoned ruin, its empire gone. Tikal lasted until 900 AD, when it too was abandoned in the general collapse of Classic-era Maya civilization.

Small temple on the edge of the Lost World. Tikal abounds with small sites like the one above. Most have no marker explaining what they are, making them truly (for me, at least) a lost world. By studying several maps of the site, and carefully reading William Coe's book and other sources, I was able to piece together at least some information about many of my photos. If I have mis-identified any of the structures I show in this or the previous posting, I welcome corrections from my viewers.

Complex Q

One of the twin-temples of Complex Q with a line of stelae and altars in the foreground. Complex Q is one of 3 twin-temple complexes (Q, R, & O) stretched out along a 531m (1/3 mi.) path. In each complex, there are two pyramids, like the one shown above, facing each other and oriented along a strict east-west axis. Complex Q is the easternmost and largest of the twin-temple complexes. It sits on a huge platform of about 5 acres. Equidistant from the two pyramids, but well off to the side, is an enclosure containing a carved stela and altar. It is believed that Complex Q was built by Yax Nuun Ayiin II, who reigned from 768-790 AD. A stela on the site provides a Maya date equivalent to 771 AD. He was apparently a distant relative, or perhaps simply adopted the name, of the Teotihuacan noble elevated to power 400 years before. Twin-temple complexes were once thought to be unique to Tikal, but have been found in several other Petén cities, attesting to the political and cultural influence of Tikal in the area. You can get a sense of the pyramid's scale from the small figure seated on top of the pyramid.

Lucas makes a careful descent. The figure on top of the Complex Q twin-temple turned out to be Lucas, a high school student seen in my previous post on Lake Atitlán. He and his parents were part of our Caravan Tour. Typically, steps to Maya temples are quite high but also quite narrow. It is necessary to exercise considerable care to avoid a mishap. In some archaeological sites, careless tourists have been killed by tumbling down such staircases. This has led both the Guatemalan and Mexican governments to restrict access to many temples.

A low-walled enclosure is entered through a classic Maya "corbel" arch. For all their amazing architectural skills, the Maya never mastered the true arch. The closest they came was the false or corbel arch. Just inside the arch, behind the wood barrier, you can see an upright stela and a low disk-like altar immediately in front. The arrangement of an enclosure off to the side of a twin temples, and containing a stela and altar, is typical of all three twin-temple complexes.

One of the more finely carved stelae and altars was in this Complex Q enclosure. Some of the stelae found in Tikal are blank, for unknown reasons. It is always the case, however, that if a stela is carved, so will be the altar, and vice-versa. As with very many of the stelae containing carvings of priests or kings, the face has been obliterated. Archaeologists think that this defacement may have occurred in the centuries after Tikal fell to ruin. Although no longer occupied as a city, it remained a sacred site and local cults were active here. The defacement may have been done to take away the power of the stela, or of the figure on it.

Kickin' back at the base of a sacred ceiba tree. A ceiba is instantly recognizable by the shape of its unusual buttress roots, and by the tall, straight trunk. Ceibas can grow to 70m (230 ft). Their arrow- straight trunks contain no branches up to the broad spreading canopy. The Ceiba was sacred to the Maya. They saw it as connecting the underworld (Xibalba) through its buttress roots, with the trunk representing daily reality, and the spreading canopy as heaven. Even in modern times, Maya foresters will often leave a ceiba standing while cutting all the trees around it.The photo of me above was taken by one of two Guatemalan soldiers who were assisting tourists wanting their picture taken in this evocative site. Dressed in jungle camouflage, and armed to the teeth with assault rifles and other weapons, the soldiers were really quite friendly and easy-going.

This completes my two-part posting on Guatemala's stunning Tikal archaeological site. I hope you enjoyed it. If you would like to leave a comment, please do so in the Comments section below, or email me directly.

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Hasta luego, Jim