Valladolid Adventures Part 12: Artifacts recovered from the depths of Cenote Ziis-Há

 

Display of 19th century flintlock muskets recovered from the cenote. It is not unusual for archeologists to discover pre-hispanic artifacts when they dive into Yucatan's deep cenotes. Most of them were thrown in as offerings to the gods. When divers searched the bottom of Cenote Ziis-Há in 2001, they did find a number of ancient offerings, as well as pre-historic animal bones. However, to their astonishment, they also found large numbers of weapons from the mid-19th century. These included flintlock muskets and a large number of musket parts, a cannon, bullets and cannon balls, lance heads, and much more. 

How this 19th century arsenal ended up littering the cenote's depths is a question people have been asking ever since. In this posting, I'll show you some of these artifacts and explore a possible answer to that questioin. The story involves the violent clashes that occurred in 1847, in the immediate vicinity of Convento de San Bernardino de Siena. This was the beginning of Yucatan's 68-year Caste War (1847-1915).

Looking through the museum's "dutch door" into one of the Convento's courtyards.  We entered through this door into the small museum contained in Valladolid's 16th century Franciscan Convento. The museum contains artifacts from the Convento's 600-year history and others from centuries before the Spanish arrived. Along with these items, they also found bones from various animals dating back 11,000 years. These animals probably fell accidentally into the cenote and drowned.

Pre-hispanic artifacts

Post-Classic Maya incense burner. The Post-Classic era lasted from 900 AD -1519 AD. This clay device, called a chemul, was used to burn copal incense during religious rituals. Traces of the incense indicate that it was probably still burning when the chemul was thrown into the cenote as a sacrifice. The incense burner measures 12cm tall x 12cm wide (4.72 x 4.72 inches). Black and red paint still adhered to it when it was found. The design is anthropomorphic (human featured). The face has two bulging eyes under large eyebrows, a partially damaged nose, and a pair of fangs protrudes from either side of the mouth. 

Hollow log used as a drum. A horizontal hollow log drum was called a tun kul by Maya musicians. Long rectangular slots were carved along the top side of the log when it lay flat. This gave it a pleasing tone when it was struck by a padded stick. Music was an important part of pre-hispanic Maya religious rituals, as well as in various secular celebrations and dances. Since it was made entirely of wood, the drum must have floated for a while before becoming waterlogged and sinking to the bottom.

19th century military artifacts 

Ammunition for a musket and a cannon. A cannon with its gun carriage was also found, but they were not on display when I visited. The musket ball (left) is 16mm (0.62in) in diameter. It also might have been part of a collection of balls, called grapeshot. When loaded into a cannon, it effectively became a huge shotgun. A load of these balls, blasted at close range, would have been devastating. The cannon ball (right) was for long-range work. It was capable of killing several warriors at a time. This is unlikely to have been Maya ammunition, because they had few firearms and no cannon.

A large arsenal had been deliberately dropped into the cenote. Some of the muskets had been tied together with cords, while others had been thrown in more randomly. The Maya would have been delighted to find a large, intact cache of firearms and ammunition and would not have intentionally destroyed them. Their opponents, the Yucatecos (non-Maya elites), were highly motivated to keep arms and ammunition, and particularly cannon, out of the hands of Maya rebels.

A nearly intact flintlock musket. The wood stock of the weapon is somewhat deteriorated and the metal parts are rusted, but it is clearly recognizable as a flintlock musket from the late 18th or early 19th centuries. It has been identified as the "India pattern" manufactured by Ketland & Co. of Birmingham, England. The company operated from 1776 to 1830. This type of musket would have been used by the British Army during the American Revolution and in the series of wars against the French that culminated in the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815. 

When the British were fighting against Napoleon's forces in Spain from 1808-1814, they supplied their Spanish allies with muskets like this. Some of those weapons may have ended up in Yucatan, which was a Spanish colony until 1821. They might have been used by Spanish soldiers and local royalist militia fighting against insurgents during the War of Independence (1810-1821). We also know that in 1847 the government of Yucatan imported 2000 British muskets from the Spanish colony of Cuba. They arrived on the Spanish ship Amistad Campechana shortly before the Maya uprising that began that same year. 

Collection of musket parts, including four flintlock mechanisms. Also included are five brackets used to secure the muskets' barrels to their wooden stocks. At the bottom right are two metal tubes which kept ramrods in place. A flintlock weapon used a piece of flint, which was fitted into the hammer. When the trigger was pulled, the hammer sprang down, striking the flint against a metal plate. This created a spark which ignited the powder in the gun's barrel. 

The threat of Maya uprisings always haunted the Spanish in Yucatan. The conquistador Francisco Montejo el Sobrino established the new city of Valladolid in 1545, after he conquered the Maya in eastern Yucatan. But the Maya had a disconcerting habit of not staying conquered. In 1546, 20,000 Maya rebels attacked Valladolid and were beaten back with great difficulty.  Over the next 500 years, the Spanish and the Yucatecos (who took over after Independencia), were kept on edge by many more uprisings. The east coast of Yucatan  remained under Maya control well into the 20th century.

More musket parts recovered from the cenote. Included are several trigger guards, some oval parts which held the long barrels in place, faceplates from the sides of the wooden stocks, and a collection of bolts. Archeologists have identified 72 parts from at least 31 different muskets. In addition, they recovered ammunition and a cannon mounted on a gun carriage. 

The actions of the Spanish, and the later Yucateco authorities, caused much resentment among the Maya. As mentioned previously, they took over Ziis-Ha and other key cenotes in water-scarce northern Yucatan. The Franciscan friars and those of other Orders often forced the Maya to gather in large villages, in a practice called congregación. The intent was to convert them and to enforce Catholic religious practices. The friars also burned vast pre-hispanic hieroglyphic libraries and destroyed Maya religious shrines. Maya lands were seized to form haciendas and the owners used forced labor under the ecomienda system. 

A lance head and various other parts. Other than the lance head, the function of the other parts is unclear. You might think that lances were an anachronism in the mid-19th century. However, they were still in use among some of the world's cavalry units as late as the beginning of the Second World War.

The henequen boom greatly accelerated land seizures in the mid-19th century (see Part 7 of this series). The encomienda system was later replaced by an equally oppressive system of debt slavery. All this came to a head in 1847. Yucatan was already in turmoil at the time. In 1839, the Yucatecos had declared Yucatan to be independent from Mexico. There were two factions and two competing capitals. Then, in 1846, Mexico was invaded and much of it was occupied by American armies. Seeing the disarray among the Yucatecos, and that the Mexican government was distracted by the Americans, the Maya prepared for a great revolt. 

The shaft of a piece of wooden machinery. This may have been part of the Convento's  noria (waterwheel) system, which had been built over the cenote. It had fallen into disrepair after the Convento was secularized in 1755. In the century that followed, part of the mechanism may have tumbled into the sinkhole. It is also possible that the noria's waterwheel was dismantled and some of its parts thrown into the cenote to create the space necessary for the arsenal to be dropped into the water. 

In June of 1847, Santiago Méndez was a leader of one of the two Yucateco factions. He heard that the Maya were massing men and supplies in a pueblo near Valladolid. He marched there and summarily executed a local Maya leader. Méndez then rampaged through other villages, burning them and ordering more arbitrary executions. In response, the outraged Maya rounded up and killed all the Yucatecos and other non-Maya people they could lay their hands on. The Maya then marched on Valladolid. Their initial point of attack was the pueblo of Sisal, just outside the city and adjacent to the Convento.

Mural about the Caste War, located in the Palacio Gobierno in Mérida. Ragged Maya fighters, armed with machetes, slash at Yucateco soldiers. This was war "up close and personal" and few prisoners were taken on either side. The Maya were poorly armed, when compared to the Yucateco forces. However, they had overwhelming numbers and a burning hatred born of centuries of abuse. In addition, many of the Maya had military experience. They had served in the various armies involved in the civil wars that had wracked Mexico during the first half of the 19th century. They now put that experience to use.

The Maya forces attacking Sisal numbered about 3000 and were commanded by a man named Trujeque. The Yucateco defenders were led by Comandante Venegas, who led a battalion of 300 well-armed men. They had a cannon, an arsenal of extra muskets and plenty of ammunition. The Yucateco force was well-entrenched and managed to hold off the Maya for two days, even though Trujeque's army outnumbered them by ten to one.

However, when it became clear that his forces would ultimately be overwhelmed, Venegas decided to surrender. It may have been at this point that he ordered his men to throw their weapons into the cenote to prevent them from falling into the hands of the Maya. There are other possible explanations for the presence of the arsenal at the bottom of the cenote, but this one seems most likely to me. 

These bells once hung in the Convento's bellfry, but were removed during the revolt. The bells did not end up in the Cenote Ziis-Há, however. They were taken to the Capilla de San Roque (now the Museum of San Roque) in Valladolid and buried in its atrium. It was not unusual during wartime for church bells to be melted down and the metal re-cast as cannons. This may have been the reason they were removed and hidden. The Convento's church was ransacked, but the rest of the Convento was left mostly intact. 

Comandante Venegas's surrender did not save him or his men. Either his white flag was not seen before the final assault, or it was ignored. The entire garrison were slaughtered, along with most of Sisal's non-Maya women, children, the elderly, and priests. The Maya went on to capture Valladolid and all of Yucatan except for the cities of Campeche and Mérida. The Governor was about to order a complete evacuation of Yucatan when the Maya suddenly began to retreat. The season had changed and the Maya farmers had to return to till their fields or their families would have starved. Yucatan's Caste War then dragged on until 1915.

This completes Part 12 of my Valladolid Adventures series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments, please include your email address so that I can respond in a timely fashion.

Hasta luego, Jim

Valladolid Adventures Part 11: Convento de San Bernardino de Siena's remarkable 17th century water system.

The noria was built 400 years ago to supply water to the Convento. In Spanish, noria translates as "waterwheel". The word originated from an Arabic verb meaning "to groan". This is a reference to the sound a noria made when operating. The waterwheel mechanism once contained in the structure above is long gone. The term noria is used today to refer to the structure which housed it.  

When it was built, this was the second largest noria in Yucatan. The only one larger was located in the pueblo of Mamá. In its time, this noria was considered a marvel of 17th century hydraulic engineering. In Part 11 of this series, I will show you the exterior and interior of the noria and explain how it worked. In addition I'll describe the Cenote Ziis-Há, quoting from the accounts of people who visited over the centuries. 

Overview

Schematic showing the location of the noria within the Convento complex. The circular structure is located just east of the north end of the complex. It is 14m (46ft) in diameter.  The large oval outlines surrounding the noria indicate the perimeter of the Cenote Ziis-Há. This water-filled sink hole is entirely underground, except for four openings, one of which is under the noria. On the west side of the cenote's perimeter, you can see a short thick line and a square dot. These represent the ruins of the Convento's old kitchen. 

In 1584, a high official in the Franciscan Order named Alonso Ponce noted that the cenote was "very deep and wide" and that "growing in it are many small but very tasty bagre  (catfish)." Evidently, he had spent some time at the dining table of the Convento's refectory. A century later, in 1688, a Franciscan friar named Diego López de Cogolludo published his Historía de Yucatan. In it, he includes a description of the cenote. "The space occupied by the water underneath is rather vast, some say as big as two blocks of houses." For more about Yucatan's cenotes, see Part 8. 

Ruins of the kitchen. In the diagram, the short thick line represents the wall on the right side of the arched doorway. The dot is the section of the wall on the doorway's left side. The noria structure can be seen on the far right. In Part 10, I described the bountiful orchard and vegetable garden that was watered by the noria. No doubt Alonso Ponce also enjoyed access to all those fruits and vegetables during his visit. 

In addition, the Convento raised cattle, which could consume as much as 20 gallons of water each day. The cattle were both for sale and to provide meat for the friars' table. So, with their access to beef, catfish, and a wide variety of fruits and vegetables, the friars certainly ate well, despite their vows of poverty. 

The Noria

Carved into the limestone wall is the date 1613. Above the date is the word Año, which means "year". 1613 was when the structure was completed. A visitor named Antonio de Ciudad Real mentioned an earlier noria when he visited in 1588. He wrote about "water that comes from the noria, which is almost next to the convent wall and is built on a very large cenote..." However, the original noria was probably a much smaller and more primitive version. That one eventually proved inadequate, leading to its replacement in the early 17th century. 

View of the east side of the noria. Using a wheel to move water is a very old technology. Ancient texts from Mesopotamia mention using waterwheels for irrigation. In the 3rd and 4th centuries BC, the technology spread through trade networks to India, Rome, Greece, and Egypt. During Europe's Dark Ages, Muslim engineers in Spain and the Middle East made various improvements to the ancient device. By the 9th century AD, Christian monasteries in Europe had begun using norias to free up the time of monks for contemplation and study. 

After the discovery of the New World in 1492, norias began appearing in Spanish settlements in the Caribbean. Yucatan's conquest in the mid-1540s led to waterwheels being used to draw water from the cenotes. Franciscan monasteries were among the first to do this. Immediately following the establishment of the Convento de San Bernardino de Siena in 1552, water was probably still pulled up by hand at first. Sometime prior to 1588, the friars installed their first noria, eventually replacing it in 1613 with the structure seen above.

Artist's depiction of one of Yucatan's norias*. The mechanism at the Convento would have been similar in design, but much larger. The vertical wheel has several buckets which are secured to the wheel by ropes. They scoop up water from the cenote as the wheel revolves and, when a bucket reaches the top of the cycle, its water empties into a trough below. From there, using channels and pipes, it is directed to where it can be collected. 

The waterwheel is geared to a horizontal wheel, which is powered by a burro walking around the 44m circumference of the structure. This explains the circular form of the early animal- driven norias. The mechanism was originally constructed using wood, rope, and ceramic buckets. Eventually, metal buckets replaced the ceramic ones and metal brackets replaced the ropes. The two main drawbacks to the noria were spillage when the water drops from the bucket to the trough and friction when the water is scooped up. Neither of those problems prevented norias from being used well into the 20th century.

*From "La Noria, a Hydrologic Technology of Yucatan", by Nina S. Williams, New Mexico State University, Dec. 2013

Detail of the massive limestone structure. The metal fence is a modern safety device. The walls and buttresses show building practices typical of the early 17th century. These include the use of rough, un-cut stone, held together with mortar. Shaped stone blocks and clay bricks did not come into regular use until later. 

A steady water supply for human consumption was not the noria's only purpose. Readily available water also enabled food preparation, regular cleaning of the Convento, and water for the orchard and cattle. 

An animal-driven noria required only a single worker, instead of large teams of Mayas toting clay pots. The noria worker's only job was to make sure the burro kept moving, a task even a child could do. This labor-saving advantage was important because plagues reduced the native workforce by almost 90% during the 16th and 17th centuries. 

Water from the cenote fills a channel along the side of the noria. The Maya were no doubt impressed by this labor-saving mechanical marvel. However, there is more to the story than that. The Maya had always lived near cenotes as a matter of survival, since there are no other sources of water in northern Yucatan. 

The Franciscan friars pursued a strategy called congregación as a key part of the "Spiritual Conquest".  Native populations were persuaded, and if necessary forced, to "congregate" in large villages where they could be evangelized and Catholic religious observance could be enforced.

The root of the noria is supported by several massive arches. The original vigas (rafters), were made of tree branches. They can still be seen supporting the ceiling. As noted, the machinery of the noria has long since been removed. What is left inside is a large open area with a grate covering the opening to the cenote where the waterwheel once sat. There are six large arched windows around the walls that provide light and air.

The Spanish authorities saw that control of key cenotes would not only ensure their own water access, but would enable them to control the native population and make it easier to congregate them. The Spanish said this was in the interests of spreading Christianity and the benefits of Spanish culture. Many of the Maya did not see it the same way. 

View through one of the arched windows.  The building in the left background is the north wall of the cloister. The wall just beyond the palm was part of the ruined kitchen. 

The Maya had freely used the cenotes for millennia and resented Spanish attempts to control them. In addition, the cenotes were important to their ancestral religion. Resentment increased when the friars began to destroy Maya religious shrines and burn their ancient hieroglyphic libraries. Even more tension resulted from Spanish seizures of traditional Maya lands to build haciendas and to impose forced labor under the encomienda system.

Ruins of an unknown structure. This may have been part of the kitchen. Some of the trees around this old ruin were probably part of the original orchard, planted by the friars back in the 16th century. Several geese can be seen near the base of this structure.

Under the encomienda system, the Spanish King granted Spaniards the right to demand tribute, including forced labor, from the inhabitants of native villages. This was in return for Christian instruction and military protection. It was a good deal, as long as you were on the right end of it. Most early colonial religious structures were built under the encomienda system, including the noria at Convento de San Bernardino de Siena.

A peacock wandered by as I was photographing the noria. Like the turkey seen in the previous posting, this fellow roamed around freely. He seemed curious about me and tagged along as I took my photos. Peacocks originated in the subcontinent of India and did not arrive in Mexico until they were brought by the Spanish in the 16th century.

This completes Part 11 of my Valladolid Adventures series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

Valladolid Adventures Part 10: The 16th Century Franciscan Convento de San Bernardino de Siena

Carole walks up a path toward Valladolid's huge convento. Now a museum, the Convento de San Bernardino de Siena is the second largest convento in Yucatan. The only one larger is in Izamal, which I will show later in this series. The structure above was once used as the Franciscan headquarters for evangelization in eastern Yucatan. It has the same fortress appearance that I remarked upon in my posting on Templo San Servacio in Valladolid. Like  the Templo, this convento was the site of several fierce battles during Yucatan's tumultuous history.

In previous posting (Part 9), I focused on the Calzada de los Frailes (Walkway of the Friars). That is the old pathway followed by the Franciscan friars when they traveled back and forth between the Convento and Valladolid's plaza area. In Part 10, the present posting, I'll show you the Convento's exterior. Accompanying the photos will be some of the history, including quotes from people who visited over the centuries. 

In Part 11, I'll show the Convento's  famous 17th century Noria (water works). Part 12 will be about the amazing artifacts found at the bottom of the deep cenote under the Noria. In Part 13, I will take you through the maze-like interior of the complex to view its artwork. The Convento, as you will see, is a fabulous place to visit.

Overview

Google satellite view of the Convento. The Calzada de los Frailes can be seen angling in from the upper right. The complex occupies an area of 14,121 square meters (15,443 square yards). Some of the trees surrounding the Calzada are the famous ceibas described by colonial visitors as lining both sides of the street almost all the way to Valladolid's plaza. However, only the ones seen above remain. The rest were cut down to make room for the colonial-era mansions that now line the street. The wooded area in the lower right used to be the orchard described in the previous posting. 

Floor plan of the Convento. The top of the plan above is north, the direction from which we approached. In the center is the church, which is shown as a horizontal rectangle that is curved at one end where the apse and altar are located. The cloister, where the friars lived and worked, is attached to the church on its north side. The cloister is a square, two-story structure with arcades along each side on both levels. These are supported by columns (shown as a square set of dots). 

The west (left) side of the plan has a vertical row of dots, representing the columns of the long arcade that runs along the front of the complex. At either end of the arcade are chapels. Also included in the complex are the refectory (dining area), several atriums (areas that are enclosed but open to the sky), and an open-air chapel for use by the native people. Finally, there is the Noria (waterworks),  located behind the northeast end of the complex. It was built over the Ziis-há cenote. You can see the perimeter of the cenote, most of which is underground. The ruins of the Convento's kitchen are adjacent to the cenote.

Exterior features.

The front of the Convento complex faces west. This was standard practice for Catholic churches, for reasons I explained in my post on Valladolid's Templo San Servacio. The church is the tallest structure seen in the center. The long frontal arcade has three portales to the left of the main entrance and four to the right. A chapel is located on either end of the arcade. The two-story structure on the left side of the church is the cloister. 

In 1562, a Maya named Nakuk Pech wrote the Chronical of Chac Xulub Chen which described the early years of the post-conquest period. "In the year 1551, Friar Fernando Guerrero came from Valladolid to Sisal and he baptized the people and introduced Christianity here, into all the territory of Valladolid west of Chels. In the year 1552 the fathers settled here at Sisal. They came from the west to teach and sing mass vespers with the singing of the organ and flute and the canto llano, which never before did we know here."  

The frontal arcade, looking toward the chapel at its south end. The work on the basic structures of the Convento lasted from 1552 to 1560, a fairly rapid project as these things go. Three Franciscan friars supervised the construction. They were Juan de Mérida, Hernando de Guevara, and Francisco de la Torre. The most important of these was Juan de Mérida. He was a former conquistador who "gave up the sword" to become a Franciscan friar after the founding of the city Mérida in 1542. A trained architect, Juan de Mérida also built that city's cathedral, as well as the huge conventos at Izamal and Mani.

The arcade above was added to the front of the Convento during the last half of the 17th century. On February 20, 1678, a plaque was placed on the wall commemorating its completion. There is a chapel on either end of the arcade. The one on the south is dedicated to the Santo Sepulcro (Holy Sepulchre) and was designated for use by the Maya. At the arcade's north end is a chapel with a shrine to the Virgen de Guadalupe. This one was set aside for the Spanish. I found this arrangement a little ironic, since the Virgen de Guadalupe is considered the special Patron of indigenous and poor people.

Rear of the church showing the outside walls of the apse (altar area). The high stone walls with crenelations along the tops give the structures a castle-like appearance. Some of these walls are more than 10m (30ft) tall and 1m (3ft) thick. In fact, the Convento was used as a fortress several times over the centuries, particularly during various Maya uprisings. In a future posting of this series, I will show some of the artifacts of these battles that were recovered on the grounds of the Convento.

The area behind the Convento was once covered by a lush orchard. According to the 1588 account of Antonio de Ciudad Real, "In that convent garden are raised bananas, alligator pears, guavas, and all kinds of oranges, pitayas, pineapples, grapes, and a great deal of fine garden stuff. All is watered with water that comes from the noria built on a very large Zonote which is below ground." While the friars were pledged to a life of poverty and simplicity, they certainly ate well!

One of several atriums on the Convento's grounds. An atrium is a large space next to a colonial church which is enclosed but open to the sky. It is used for outdoor religious events and processions. Atriums were particularly important in Franciscan conventos because they were often used for mass conversions. There were usually far more native people who attended these events than could fit inside the church. Carole can be seen standing in the shadow of the palms next to the atrial cross. Notice the rough pieces of limestone used by the Maya masons to construct the walls in the 16th century.

The atrial cross. Stand-alone crosses like this are usually found in atriums. They are used during outdoor religious activities. While this one is undecorated, atrial crosses that I have seen elsewhere are covered by religious symbols, usually relating to the Passion of Jesus (events leading to the crucifixion). This secluded atrium has a quiet serenity that I found particularly attractive. Although I am not religious myself, I can understand why friars and other religious people might come here to engage in deep contemplation. 

While I was deep in my own contemplations, this fellow wandered by. In my travels into the far reaches of Mexico' over the last 18 years, animals have always been present. Sometimes these have included cattle and horses, at other times goats and pigs, occasionally iguanas, and always dogs. Quite often, it has included turkeys. This one is a magnificent specimen. He was not penned up, but just casually roamed around the grounds. Turkeys are native to North America and Yucatan has its own wild species, called Meleagris ocellata. However, the one above appears to be a domesticated variety. 

This completes Part 10 of my Valladolid Adventures series. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question, please include your email address so that I can respond in a timely manner.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

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