This hacienda de beneficio (ore refining operation) was established in 1680 to service mines in the area. It also functioned as a hacienda de ganado y agricola to produce livestock and agricultural products for the mining community.
In 1712, Hacienda Santa Maria was owned by Nicolás Zertucha, a military officer. Two years later, in 1714, he bought the Nuestra Señora de los Remedios mine to provide ore for his refining operation. It was not unusual for the same person or family to own a mine, a refining operation, and a food and livestock property.
Before touring the ex-hacienda, I briefed our group on colonial silver mining. The ruined adobe structures on the left are part of the hacienda complex. The search for silver and gold were top priorities for the Spanish conquistadors. At the time of the Spanish arrival, precious metals were obtained through simple panning methods, but those sources were quickly exhausted. In the 1540s, after the fall of the Aztecs, the Spanish found major deposits in Zacatecas and then in Guanajuato and Taxco.
Remains of the gate post at the old entrance of the hacienda. There would have been a massive gate here to protect the refining operation and its store of newly poured silver ingots. Only one of the two gate posts remains. Although mining could be immensely profitable, there were a number of problems that had to be surmounted in order for these operations to pay off.
This high adobe wall once surrounded the operation. On a hacienda, the structures within such a wall were called the casco. This translates as "helmet" and the term is apt since those structures were the nerve center of the hacienda. The walls protected the valuables and the people inside from attackers. Who were these attackers? Their identities changed over the centuries, but they always presented a danger.
This ruined structure is made of adobe covered with plaster. The arched doorway is partially bricked up so that animals can be penned up inside. Notice the nopal cactus growing on the top. It is not uncommon to find this on old buildings because adobe is just dirt mixed with straw. The original use of this structure is not clear. It may have contained machinery for crushing ore or possibly it served administrative purposes.
An old water channel runs along the base of an adobe wall. This was part of the aqueduct that provided water for the mining operation and later for tequila distillation. Water was always a key consideration in decisions about where to establish a hacienda. Both livestock and cultivated products need it and water is also essential to many industrial processes such as refining and distillation. Litigation between haciendas over water rights, or between them and native villages, was common in the colonial court system.
This structure is partially underground. The brick building uses a natural rock formation for part of its foundation, with the entrance cut directly through the rock. The semi-subterranean nature of the building was puzzling to me at first. Then it occurred to me that this would be a good way to maintain a stable temperature. I believe that this structure may have been used to store barrels of tequila. However, this is only speculation, since the structure was completely empty when I visited.
Some members of the family who live on the former hacienda de beneficio. The little girl on the right was too shy to show her face, but her mom and siblings seemed to enjoy being photographed. There were several more kids, along with a matriarchal abuela (grandmother), but I didn't get good photos of them.
In this posting, I will show you the ruins of ex-Hacienda de Santa Maria and tell you a bit about colonial silver mining and some of its problems. I'll also introduce you to some of the current residents--human and animal--of this picturesque site.
The route from Ajijic to the Ex-Hacienda de Santa Maria. From Ajijic, you head east and take the Libramiento (free road) to the highway that links Chapala to Guadalajara. Just north of Ixtlahuacan de los Membrillos, you head west on the Macrolibramiento (a toll road). Continue on the toll road until you connect with the 15D cuota (another toll road).
Overview
Then, you head west, past Tequila to Magdalena. Exiting at Magdalena, you continue west through the town on Highway 15 (a free road). About 2 km past the western outskirts of Magdalena, a road branches off to the right at the sign for Santo Domingo. Follow this road until you reach the third road branching off to the right. There is no sign for Santa Maria so the turn is easy to miss.
The road to the pueblo of Santa Maria heads to the top of a hill where you reach the outskirts of the pueblo. The main road curves sharply to the right, but you should continue straight on a side road on the left that heads down hill. Turn left at your first intersection and you have reached the hacienda's ruins. Click on this Google map for the final stage of the journey.
The flood of silver (and to a lesser extent gold) had massive world-wide effects. Spain, then a part of the Holy Roman Empire, became rich overnight. The money funded a series of European dynastic wars, as well as further conquests in the Americas. All this made Spain a world power. The silver monetized the European economy and international trade, helping launch the early stages of capitalism.
The silver flowed toward Asia as well as Europe. The Spanish established a trading post in the Philippines and used the silver to obtain Chinese silks, fine ceramics, and other luxury items. The famous Manila Galleons carried these goods to Acapulco and San Blas for trans-shipment to Spain. Mexican silver also helped monetize the Chinese economy. The search for new mines soon became intense. Then, at the start of the 17th century, silver was discovered in the rugged mountains around Hostotipaquillo.
Hacienda de Beneficio Santa Maria
In the early days, rich deposits could be found near the surface. As time went on, however, this "low-hanging fruit" became exhausted. Mines had to be dug deeper to follow the veins. As the depth grew, so did the danger of cave-ins. Even worse, when the water table was reached, massive flooding could occur. This often caused mines to be abandoned. Only those mine owners with the ability to pay for pumping could continue.
Until the invention of large steam pumps in the 19th century, the only recourse was to winch up buckets of water by mule power. The equipment, the mules, and the men to operate the system were expensive. Mules were also needed to haul the ore down to the haciendas de beneficio and to then haul the finished ingots to Guadalajara. Producing a steady supply of mules was one of the functions of the haciendas de ganado y agricola.
During the early days, the Chichimeca were the primary threat. The name is a catchall for several different nomadic tribes who had inhabited northern and western Mexico for centuries. They were fierce warriors and, having no fixed villages, were extremely difficult to find and conquer. Attempts to use them as slaves in the mines usually failed because they simply refused to work. Chichimeca raids finally ended when peace was negotiated at the end of the 17th century.
Peter walks through the ruins. Peter and his wife Marilyn have become regulars on our Hacienda Hunts. He is surrounded by some interesting features, including the columns seen before, some circular pits on the left and an oven with an arched top on the right. We will examine these features in some detail a bit later.
An old grindstone was set upright in the ground. It was not clear whether the stone was used to grind ore or possibly agave in the tequila-making process. It may also have served to grind corn or wheat into flour. Possibly the grindstone served all of these purposes over the centuries.
This is one of a series of open ovens along the base of a wall. As with the grindstone, it is not clear whether these ovens were used in the ore refining process or to cook ground up agave to make tequila. One use may have succeeded the other as the economics of Santa Maria changed over time. Both the fuera and azoque processes for refining silver used heat (see Part 1 of this series).
Bandit gangs were a problem that grew during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. Until the start of the 18th century, ordinary people did fairly well. Full-blooded Spaniards had the most social and economic opportunities, of course. However, the great die-off of the native population in the 16th and 17th centuries (almost 90% in many areas) created a severe labor shortage, so the mestizos (mixed blood) and the surviving natives could generally live decently and even prosper.
However, when the population recovered, cities grew and productive land became more valuable. As a result, life for ordinary people became progressively worse. Haciendas expanded, squeezing small mestizo farmers and native villagers off their lands. The tiendas de raya (company stores) on the haciendas turned workers into debt-slaves. The increased availability of mine labor also meant stagnant wages and worse working conditions. As a result, many young men turned to banditry.
When the War of Independence broke out in 1810, the danger to haciendas like Santa Maria soared. Either insurgent forces or those of the royalists might show up and demand food, horses, conscripts, and silver. If either side thought the other might get control of the area, a hacienda de beneficio's equipment might be destroyed. As the war ground on for a decade, many insurgent bands became little more than gangs of bandits who often raided haciendas.
Following the end of the Independence War in 1821, internal warfare continued through most of the 19th century. This included an almost unending series of military coups and uprisings, civil wars, and foreign invasions. The effect on haciendas was similar to what happened during the Independence War. After the French occupation ended in 1867, things did settle down a bit. However, the demobilized soldiers often joined or formed bandit gangs, which continued as a threat to haciendas.
Still another big problem was with the refining itself. While the fuera process was sufficient for high grade silver, that quality of ore eventually ran out. The ore dug from deeper levels was of lower grade and often unprofitable, causing some mines to be abandoned. The azoque (mercury amalgamation) process was developed in Europe and brought to Nueva España in the late 16th century. By the 18th century, it was widely used to produce high quality silver from low grade ore.
The problem with the azoque process was that the Spanish Crown held a monopoly on mercury. This was very profitable to the Crown but expensive for mine owners. In addition, from the 16th through the early 19th centuries, Spain was embroiled in a series of European wars which often included naval blockades. These, in turn, periodically inhibited the transport of mercury to Nueva España. Lack of mercury prevented refining and this to led mine shutdowns.
We found a number of circular pits that had been used for making tequila. Over the centuries haciendas changed, or added to, what they produced. When they arrived, Spanish conquistadors observed that the native people used the wild maguey plant to make a mildly alcoholic beverage called pulque. The Spanish Crown had another monopoly on liquors like rum and brandy, so local Spaniards began to distill the juice of the maguey to make a hard liquor.
At first, the liquor was only made for those living on remote haciendas where rum and brandy were too expensive and difficult to obtain. However, by the beginning of the 18th century, the maguey liquor had became so popular that haciendas began to produce it commercially. During this time, José Cuervo began large-scale planting of agave azul (a cultivated version of the wild maguey) on his hacienda near the pueblo of Tequila.
The Current Residents
We never encountered any adult males, but they may have been working elsewhere. The family was curious but easy-going about our visit, which is not unusual in rural Mexico. To show we appreciated their tolerant and hospitable attitude, we left some money with the abuela "for the kids", which she gravely accepted.
Just inside the casco wall, we encountered this beautiful horse. Mexican horses are generally very well cared for, even in the poorest pueblos. Although I am no horse expert, this one appeared to be in very good condition. The horse culture runs very deep in the state of Jalisco, which is the birthplace of the charro (Mexican rodeo performer), and charrería (rodeo). Almost any day, you may encounter vaqueros (working cowboys) driving a herd of horses or cattle.
A goat came out to greet us. He was very curious and not at all frightened by our sudden appearance in his small world. Goats are very hardy and can eat a wide variety of plants, including some that other animals wouldn't even consider. Consequently they are very common in rural Mexico. From them, Mexicans can obtain meat, hides, and milk. A popular rural dish is pozole, a stew made with the meat of a cabrito (a kid or young goat). It's quite tasty!
A Mexican brahman stands in front of a bricked up oven. This was one of two that I saw during our visit. Brahman cattle were imported to Mexico from India during the 19th century. They were sought because of their ability to withstand hot humid weather and resistance to insects and disease. The cows are very fertile and are good mothers to their calves. They also produce milk under conditions that are unfavorable to European breeds.
This turkey wandered about with a rather disdainful attitude. He seemed to think he owned the place. Turkeys are native to the Americas and are one of the few animals that were domesticated by the indigenous people of pre-hispanic Mexico. Horses, goats, and cattle were all imported by the Spanish.
This completes Part 2 of my Hostotipaquillo series. I hope you enjoyed it and, if so, that you will leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, please include your email address so that I may respond in a timely manner.
Hasta luego, Jim
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