Amacueca's 16th century church and convent, Part 2 of 2

Parroquia del Dulce Nombre de Jesus. The Parish Church of the Sweet Name of Jesus was originally erected in 1547, making it one of the oldest in Jalisco. The gray stone facade contains four time-worn statues of Franciscan saints, framed by spiraling Solomonic columns, fashioned in the Baroque style. The campanario (bell tower) and the clock are from the 19th century. A large paved atrium spreads out in front of the church.

Atriums served very practical purposes. For thousands of years, indigenous people had worshipped their gods in the open, usually in front of their temple-pyramids. Assembling inside a church to worship the new Christian deity was very alien to their experience. In addition, native populations were often too large to fit inside early churches. Consequently, open-air atriums were constructed so that native people could gather for mass conversions and other religious activities.

In this posting, I will focus on the long history Amacueca's Parroquia. The church dates back to the middle of the 16th century and contains a variety of architectural styles, including Moorish, Mexican Churrigueresque, and Neo-Classic. Inside, a large reredo stands behind the altar. It is unusually elaborate for a small church in a rather remote community. I will begin with some of the interesting features on the outside of the church.

Exterior features

The gate into the atrium is topped with a Moorish arch. Pointed arches like this are an echo of the architecture that developed in Spain during 700 years of Moorish domination. The Moors invaded from North Africa in 711 AD and were finally expelled by Christian Spaniards in 1492 AD. 

The Christian Reconquista (Re-Conquest) had been long and bitterly fought. Along the way, however, the Christians adopted many elements of Moorish culture including artistic styles. The Moorish surrender occurred just before Columbus set off on his Voyage of Discovery. As the Spanish settled in the New World, they brought the styles of art and architecture they had learned from the Moors.

View of the campanario from the rear. Hanging from it are five bells of various sizes. The three largest carry dates ranging from 1887 to 1954. The campanario was constructed later than the gray stone facade of the church, probably in the 19th century. Prior to that, the church and its convent would have employed other bells. Where they were hung and what became of them are unknown to me.

The bell on the side of the campanario is fixed to a headstock. The headstock, or yoke, is a wooden framework that pivots back and forth when a rope is pulled, causing the bell's clapper to strike the interior. The fact that this bell is fixed to a headstock of antique design strongly suggests that it is the earliest one, dated 1887. It is possible that the headstock is even older.

Three weights hang from the clock's mechanism.. I photographed these on my way down from the church roof. The mechanism inside a clocktower is known as a turret clock and this one is powered by weights. The first turret clock was constructed in the 11th century. Several centuries later, in 1370,  Henri de Vick installed the first weight-driven turret clock in the Palais du Roi (Palace of the King) in Paris. Amacueca's clock was installed in 1872 by Teodosio Diaz Flores, the parish priest. 

Statue of San Antonio de Padua, to the right of the main door. There are four statues of Franciscan saints in niches on the facade of the church. Two are on either side of the main door and two more on either side of the choir loft window above. 

A group of Franciscans, known as the Twelve Apostles of Mexico, were the first of the Religious Orders to land in the New World's mainland. They debarked in Vera Cruz in 1524, barely two years after the fall of the Aztec Empire. 

The arrival of the Franciscans marked the launch of the so-called Spiritual Conquest. This was the ideological twin of the Military Conquest. Franciscan friar Juan de Padilla reached Amacueca in 1535 and began evangelizing the natives. Franciscans would continue to control the religious affairs of the town for 164 years.

Antique hardware on the main entrance's old wooden door. I am always fascinated by the old locks and other hardware on historic buildings. This lock is fully functional and definitely not just for decoration. The iron key must be quite large and heavy, not the sort that you would casually slip in your pocket.

In 1547, another Franciscan named Simon de Bruselas (Simon of Brussels) began construction on the church/convent complex. These buildings became the center of the area's missionary activity. The project was probably accomplished using forced labor under the encomienda system. This system allowed Spaniards to demand free labor from indigenous people in return for protection and instruction in Christianity. This was a pretty good deal, as long as you were on the right end of it.

Interior of Church

Monolithic baptismal font. The term monolithic means the font was carved from a single piece of stone. My friend Richard Perry blogs about colonial Mexico and has written a number of excellent books that I have found useful in my blog research and as guides while traveling in Mexico. No information about this baptismal font was available elsewhere, so I consulted him. Richard was able to provide the following details:

"This is a fine old monolithic font, skillfully carved with Cristic and Marian acronyms like some others I have seen. The cord molding around the base suggests its Franciscan origin and it may well be the original mission font, which would date it to the late 1500s, most likely. I see that it has a projecting knob which indicates that it is/was portable, probably used in the convento or outside in the old atrium--another feature that supports its early date."

The reredo is surprisingly ornate for small rural church. Its Churrigueresque style follows a design popular in the city of Queretaro. The side panels were carved in the early 1800's, but the center panel was damaged in an earthquake in 1749 and was replaced at a more recent date.

The craftsmanship of the reredo is of a high order. In my previous posting, my photo showed the two top niches empty, because the statues were being restored. This shot, taken a year later, shows them in place. All the statues in the niches are Franciscan saints. The statue on the crucifix was carved from wood in the 16th century.

The word reredo comes from Latin, meaning "board behind". These large and intricately-carved wooden structures can be found behind altars. They generally have several niches containing religious statues or paintings. Reredos carved in the Churrigueresque style are decorated with  cherub heads and floral curlicues, in addition to the paintings and statues.

A statue of San Francisco stands in the bottom left niche. The niche is bracketed by two estipite columns, also Churrigueresque features. The tops of the columns contain unusual figures. According to Richard Perry, angels or archangels would normally occupy these positions. Instead, "these figures appear to be Franciscan friars, holding a variety of objects...some of which may indicate martyrdom or other identifying symbols of particular individuals."

San Francisco de Assisi (1181-1226), was one of the towering figures of the Medieval Church. Although he never became a priest, he founded no less than three Holy Orders. These include the Order of Friars Minor (the Franciscan Order for men), the Order of St. Clare (for women), and the Third Order of St. Francis (for lay people). He took his vows of poverty and simplicity very seriously and was so important and so venerated that Pope Gregory IX elevated him to sainthood less than two years after his death.

Cherub heads, also known as putti, sprout everywhere on the reredo. These represent yet another Churrigueresque feature. However, putti have a very long history as decorative elements. They appeared thousands of years before the Christian era and continued in popularity into the early 20th century. It is also typical of the Churrigueresqe style that, besides the numerous putti, almost every square inch of the reredo contains some decorative element.

Santa Clara de Assisi was another important Franciscan saint. Her niche is on the lower right, across from San Francisco. St. Clare (1194-1253) came from a wealthy noble family. She rejected her social position and became an early follower of Francis after hearing him preach in Assisi. Clare's devotion attracted a considerable following of women. Eventually they set themselves up in simple huts near the Church of San Damiano, which had been rebuilt by Francis from a ruined condition. 

Francis helped Clare formalize her group as the Order of Poor Ladies of San Damiano (changed to the Order of St. Clare after her death). Their strict rules included going barefoot, sleeping on the ground, observing complete silence, and remaining cloistered from the world. Clare followed Francis' example of poverty and simplicity so closely that some called her alter Franciscus (another Francis). Also like Francis, Clare was canonized only two years after her death. 

An old organ stands in the choir loft at the back of the church. "Peters & Co., Scranton Pa. USA" appears above the organ's keyboard. I have been unable to locate an organ manufacturer by that name currently operating in Scranton, Pa. I therefore assume the company has gone out of business. 

Until well into the 20th century, Mexico remained a largely agricultural society. Although there was some industrialization during the dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz (1876-1911), large amounts of sophisticated manufactured goods still had to be imported from the US and Europe. The imports apparently included this organ.

The elaborate wooden pulpit contained several depictions of Apostles. I have not been able to determine the identity of this one. An estipite pilaster (false pillar) stands to the right of the Apostle. On this one, there is no angel or Franciscan friar on top. The pulpit is on the side wall, about 2/3 of the way to the altar. 

Pulpits have been similarly placed in most of the Catholic churches I have visited. I have always found this arrangement oddly awkward, since the congregation would have to turn toward the side to listen to anyone speaking from the pulpit. There is probably a reason for this, but I have yet to discover it.

The Franciscan Convent

View of the convent courtyard from the roof of the church. At the time we visited in 2014, the convent was under renovation. Over the centuries, the church and its convent have been rebuilt, renovated, or repaired numerous times. In 1568, the church was rebuilt after it was destroyed by an earthquake. The doorway to the sacristy carries the date 1718, indicating additional changes. 

In 1749, another quake seriously damaged these structures. The Neo-Classic style was becoming popular during the second half of the 18th century, so it is likely that the some of the church's Neo-Classic features were added during the repairs. Quake damage, natural fires, and war destruction have wreaked havoc on Mexico's colonial architecture. Amacueca has definitely not escaped this history.

Ground-level view of the convent's courtyard. The replacement of the tiles was only about halfway complete at this time but the rest of the renovation appeared to be finished. The large square courtyard is surrounded by a walkway covered by arcades. The rooms behind the walkway served as dormitories, dining rooms, a kitchen, rooms for work and storage, and administrative offices. 

The whole structure is called a cloister and, as with most other convents, it is attached to the side a church. Because of the enclosed aspect of these religious buildings, the term "cloistered" has come to mean "cut off or removed from the world". 

Arcade along one side of the cloister. Although these walls separated the Franciscan friars from outsiders, the friars were by no means cut off from the world. The Franciscans traveled widely in their efforts to convert the native population. Although they had a head start, the Franciscans were not the only evangelical Order who devoted themselves to this task. The Dominicans arrived in 1525, the Augustinians in 1533, and the Jesuits in 1571. Other, smaller Orders came later. 

Considerable competition resulted, sometimes over practical "turf" issues, but at other times disputes were ideological. For example, the Franciscans initially opposed recognizing the Virgin of Guadalupe as a genuine apparition of the Virgin Mary. They thought the reported encounter was just a scam to enable the natives to worship Tonantzin, the pre-hispanic Earth Mother. The Dominicans and Augustinians disagreed because their support of the Virgin of Guadalupe drastically increased their conversion rates. Practicality prevailed and the Franciscans lost the argument.

A circular stove stands in the middle of the convent's kitchen. The stove was fired by wood placed in the square holes on the sides. They correspond to other square holes in the top where pots and kettles would be placed for cooking. I have seen a number of old stoves like this in the ruins of haciendas.

The convent has not functioned as such since 1799. In that year, changes in Church politics required the Franciscans to give up their control over Amacueca's religious affairs and allow the secular clergy to take over. In truth, the exciting days of mass conversions and battles against "devil worship" by the native people were long over. The times were changing. Only eleven years later, the War of Independence from Spain would begin. 

This ends Part 2 of my Amacueca series and completes the series itself. I hope you have enjoyed it. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you use the Comments section for a question, please include your email address so that I can respond.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

Amacueca Part 1 of 2: Hillside colonial pueblo overlooking the scenic Sayula Valley

Informal vegetable market under one of the plaza's arcades. This is exactly the sort of activity envisioned by Spain's King Phillip II when he promulgated his 1573 decree on New World urban planning. He directed that arcades should be constructed around plazas so that sellers and buyers could be protected from the elements. Consequently, arcades similar to this one can be found throughout Mexico.

In this two-part series, we will visit Amacueca, a small town founded in the mid-16th century. Part 1 will focus on the central area, including the plaza, the main church, and a museum devoted to natural history and archeology. Part 2 will cover Parroquia del Dulce Nombre de Jesus, a church dating back to the 16th century. 

Overview

How to find Amacueca. Take the Carretera west from Ajijic to Joctopec. Just before entering Jocotopec, take the bypass to Highway #15. Turn right (north) on #15 and follow it to the Guadalajara-Colima toll road (#54D). Head south on #54D toward Colima for about 50km (32mi). Exit #54D at the sign for Tapalpa/Atoyac and head west toward Tapalpa. The road will cross Laguna Sayula, which is generally dry from the winter thru early summer. 

When you reach Highway #417, turn left (south) at the sign directing you toward Tapalpa. Follow #417 approximately 6.4km (4mi). Look for a sign indicating a right turn to Amacueca. After a couple of hundred meters, you will see bus benches on either side of the road. Turn right there and follow that road into town until you reach the main plaza and Parroquia del Dulce Nombre de Jesus. Here is a link to the Google map above.

Amacueca from the air, looking northeast. The pueblo was built on the slopes of the great escarpment that rises up to the Tapalpa Plateau. Just left of center in the photo, you can see the plaza and the bell tower of the Parroquia. In front of the bell tower is a large, open rectangular area called an atrium. This was a standard feature of most early colonial churches, particularly those built by the Franciscan Order.

Amacueca is the principal town of the Municipio de Amacueca (equivalent to US county). The Municipio covers an area of 131.79 sq.km. (50.88 sq.mi.). Its altitude is 1,431m (4,695ft), which gives the town a moderate climate year-round. From its position on the slopes of the great escarpment that rises up to the Tapalpa Plateau, the views of both the mountains and Valle de Sayula are spectacular. 

View of Valle de Sayula and its lake. A light-colored strip crosses the middle of the valley. This is Laguna de Sayula during the season when it is dry. The peak in the background is Nevado de Colima, an extinct volcano that I climbed in November of 2008. The peak rises to 4220m (14,240ft), making it a very challenging hike even for the experienced.  

The Spanish arrived in the area in 1522 and the fertility of Valle de Sayula made it one of the first places they settled. Salt was another major attraction. It has been gathered from around the edges of the shallow lake for thousands of years, and still is. In pre-hispanic times, salt was valued highly for food preservation and as a trade good.  

In 1480 AD, Tangaxuan II of the Tarascan Empire decided to seize the Sayula Valley's salt collection areas. To accomplish this, he sent an army 321km (200mi) from his kingdom in Michoacan across the rugged Sierra del Tigre range. Valle de Sayula's local kingdoms fought back in the Guerra de Salitre (Salt War). In 1510, forces led by a local ruler named Colimotl finally expelled the Tarascans. The modern city and state of Colima are named after him.

Plaza de Amacueca

A kiosco stands in the middle of the main plaza. Kioscos serve a variety of purposes. They are used as bandstands for concerts and other performances. Speakers at political events sometimes stand on them to address crowds. Kioscos are often lavishly decorated during fiestas such as Christmas or the Day of the Dead. In between such events, children use them as a playground. 

Although kioscos are ubiquitous features of Mexico's plazas, they are a fairly recent addition. Most appeared during the last part of the 19th century. Many were given as good-will gifts to Mexican cities and towns by the Emperor Maximillian during the French occupation of 1862-1867. The popularity of these structures long outlasted the brief reign of Maximillian and his wife. 

View from the plaza's garden toward the arcade. A decorative iron lamp post stands to the left side. Mexicans take great pride in their plaza gardens, even in the smallest pueblos. Plazas like this form cool, lush refuges from the surrounding hustle and bustle. Iron benches stand along the edge of the plaza. Although empty at the moment, benches in plazas are usually filled with people chatting, studying their smart phones, snoozing or simply enjoying the day.

The name Amacueca is from the Nahuatl language, also spoken by the Aztecs. Several translations include "Hollow round", "Place far from the lagoon", and "Place of the Amates". In 1522, a Spanish expedition under Alonso de Ávalos and Juan Álvarez Chico arrived and claimed the area for the Spanish King. Ávalos was one of several lieutenants of Hernán Cortéz who were dispatched in every direction after the fall of the Aztec Empire. Amacueca became part of the new Province of Ávalos. 

View of the portales lining the west side of the plaza. The arcade and the buildings behind it are from the colonial period. They would have been among the first of the structures erected after the plaza was laid out. The buildings served many purposes over the centuries. Some of them would have been the mansions of wealthy Spaniards. A merchant would have used the first floor as a shop or a storage room for merchandise, while he and his family lived upstairs.

Amacueca played an early role in the War of Independence from Spain. In 1810, insurgent leader Padre Miguel Hidalgo sent Jose Antonio Torres to the area. While here, he recruited men from Amacueca into his army. In 1811, the brothers Francisco and Gordiano Guzmán captured the town of Atoyac (located on the opposite side of the lake) with the help of a company of indigenous spearmen from Amacueca.

Colonial era doors hark back to a distant time. When they were originally installed, these probably opened into a merchant's shop. The security bars, added much later, turned them into large windows. Unlike the boringly utilitarian doors and windows of modern buildings, those constructed in an earlier era nearly always contain decorative elements that reflect the taste of the owner.

In 1927, one of Amacueca's native sons had the distinction of serving as Governor of Jalisco--but for only 58 days! The brief tenure of David Benitez Vasquez resulted from his backing of the wrong side in a post-Revolution power struggle. He supported Francisco Serrano against Álvaro Óbregon, who had both been revolutionary generals. During the run-up to the 1928 presidential election, Serrano was assassinated, reputedly on the orders of Óbregon. Shortly after, David Benitez Vasquez was ousted as Jalisco's Governor.

Parroquia del Dulce Nombre de Jesus

The church and its adjacent convent are among of the oldest structures in town. As is often the case around Mexico, this church has been destroyed and rebuilt several times over the centuries, usually due to earthquakes. The earliest version was built in the mid-16th century. The gray stone facade seen above was constructed in the 18th century. Other parts of the church have been remodeled several times since. 

Carole walks down the central aisle toward the altar. The nave ends in a curved area called an apse, which surrounds the altar. The wall behind the altar is filled with a sumptuous retablo. Its exuberantly florid Churrigueresque style was an expression of the Baroque style popular in the 17th and early 18th centuries. 

In the mid-18th century, the Neo-Classic style arose as a reaction to the emotionalism of Baroque. The spare, staid columns and largely blank sidewalls of the church reflect the sober Neo-Classic rationalism that prevailed when the church was remodeled.

To call this retablo "richly decorated" would be an understatement. The floor-to-ceiling explosion of statues, cherub heads and floral curlicues is both mesmerizing and a bit overwhelming. Three niches on either side were created to contain the statues of Franciscan saints but, in the photo above, the top two are empty. 

When I took this shot in 2013, the retablo was being cleaned and restored. Part 2 of this series will contain much more detail on the retablo, including photos that I took a year later when all the niches were filled with statues.

Museum of Natural Sciences of the Sayula Basin

The skeleton of a mastodon found in the area is displayed in the Natural History room. It is one of three sections in the museum. The other two rooms contain artifacts and information relating to Archeology and Evolution. Mammut americanum was one of the most widespread ancestors of the modern elephant. Before it became extinct about 7000 BC, it ranged from Alaska to as far south as Honduras.

The Museum of the Natural History of the Sayula Basin was founded November 22, 2001. The museum is located near the plaza at #2 Calle Pedro Moreno, between Calle Parroquia and Calle Guadalupe Yanez. Its hours are Monday through Friday from 9am to 3pm. When we visited, there was no entrance fee, but that may have changed over the years. The charge would be very modest, in any case.

Russet Crowned Motmot (Motmotus mexicanus). The Natural History section also contained a wide variety of native and migratory birds. I was assisted in their identification by Tom Holeman and John Keeling of the Lake Chapala Birders. 

The Russet Crowned Motmot is a permanent resident of the forested areas in northwestern Mexico and central Guatemala. It is very sedentary and returns to the same nesting area each year. The bird feeds on small prey such as grasshoppers, snakes, and lizards, as well as fruit. The Motmot darts out to catch prey, then returns to its perch. 

Roseate Spoonbill (Platalea ajaja). Of the six species of spoonbills in the world, the Roseate Spoonbill is the only one found in the Americas. Its range is from the Southeastern US down to Mexico and parts of Central and South America. Their appearance has been compared to creatures in a Dr. Seuss book. 

As they get older, these Spoonbills lose feathers on the top of their heads, a bit like human balding. They forage while wading in shallow water and, like pink flamingos, get their coloration from the crustaceans and other aquatic invertebrates they eat.

Crested Caracara (Caracara cheriway). While it has been called the "Mexican Eagle", the Crested Caracara is actually a falcon. In fact, it is the only falcon that builds a nest for its young. This bird likes open landscapes like those in Valle de Sayula. 

The Caracara can often be found atop the tallest available tree or other high perch, when it is not gliding along low to the ground, looking for prey. The bird sometimes acts like a vulture, walking on the ground and feeding on carcasses. However, it also eats live food such as insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians, mammals and other birds. 

Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis). The Cattle Egret is short and thick-necked. It gets its name from close proximity to cattle in their pastures. This bird feeds on small insects stirred up as cattle move around in the grass. Sometimes it will perch on the back of a cow to feast on the ticks it finds there. Cattle Egrets originated in Africa but managed to reach South America in 1877. From there they spread north over Mexico, the Caribbean, and the southern half of the US. 

This completes Part 1 of my two-part Amacueca series. I hope you have enjoyed it and, if so, you will leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. If you leave a question in the Comments section, please include your email address so that I may respond in a timely fashion.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

Calakmul Part 6 of 6: The murals of the Ch'iik Naahb Acropolis show daily life in ancient times

Detail of a mural from Structure 1. One of the better-known of Ch'iik Naanb's murals includes a woman in a diaphanous blue dress helping another woman with a large pot. The murals were found during archeological work on a small pyramid called Structure 1. While murals at other Maya sites depict gods, kings, or nobility, the ones at Ch'iik Naahb are unique in showing commoners pursuing daily activities. 

This posting focuses on Structure 1, of Acropolis Ch'iik Naahb. Most of my information is drawn from two archeological reports. One focuses on the images and the other on the hieroglyphic captions that accompany them. Except for one, all photos and diagrams in this posting come from those two reports. The one exception is the photo of the exterior of Structure 1 as it appears today. The murals are inside the pyramid and were not open to the public when we visited.

Overview

Site map of Calakmul showing Acropolis Ch'iik Naahb. The Acropolis is located directly to the north of the Gran Plaza, which I covered earlier in this series. Ch'iik Naahb ("Place of the Water Lily") is one of the ancient names used to describe Calakmul. Archeologists decided to give this label to the acropolis containing Structure 1.

The name Calakmul ("Two Adjacent Mounds") was created by Cyrus Lundell to describe the ruins he found in 1931. On the map above, an arrow points to the location of Structure 1. (Map from Daily Life of the Ancient Maya recorded on murals at Calakmul, by Ramon Carrasco Vargas, et al.)

Another detail from the mural containing the Woman in Blue . The man shown is seated behind the woman with the pot on her head. He is drinking atole, a hot drink based on corn hominy flour. It is still popular all over Mexico. The modern version is flavored with cane sugar, cinnamon vanilla and sometimes includes chocolate or fruit. Atole has the consistency of thick Cream of Wheat cereal.

The drinker wears ear rings and has a scarf on his head. Like all the men depicted in the murals, he is bare-chested. The caption in the upper left translates as "Atole Person". However, this doesn't refer to the drinker but to the women with the pot. Usually, captions accompanying Maya murals provide individual names. However, these only describe roles. Like the focus on common people, this is very unusual in Maya murals.

Layout of Acropolis Ch'iik Naahb. The Acropolis is roughly square and measures about 150m (492ft) per side. In total, it covers approximately 2.5 hectares (6.2 acres). Within its boundaries are 68 structures grouped in 11 clusters, alphabetically labeled as Groups A through I. Cluster I contains the tallest building in the Acropolis, the three-level pyramid called Structure 1. So far, the only detailed information I have been able to find on Acropolis Ch'iik Naahb focuses solely on Structure 1 and its murals. 

There are two sets of murals within the acropolis. The first is in Group A, which forms the southern boundary of Ch'iik Naahb. I did not see or photograph these, but the reports describe aquatic scenes painted along the boundary wall. The second set was found when archeologists tunneled inside Structure 1. The pyramid has a total of six substructures. The murals decorate the corners of the pyramid and sides of the stairs on the fourth substructure, called Sub 1-4. 

Structure 1

Structure 1, as it stands today. This the only photo taken by me in this posting. The pyramid has three-levels, with a broad area on the third level that once contained a temple made from perishable materials. The main staircase (on left) has a disk-shaped altar at its base. What you see above is the reconstruction of the latest version of the structure. It covers the earlier versions, and each of those covers the one previous to it. 

Of the six substructures, the earliest (Sub 1-6) was built approximately 420 AD in the Early Classic period. The five succeeding substructures were all built during the Late Classic (600-900 AD). Ceramic fragments buried in the construction fill allowed a fairly accurate chronology. Structure 1, along with the rest of Group I, seems to have functioned as the religious and administrative center of Acropolis Ch'iik Naahb. The Acropolis may have functioned as a large market or possibly as a site to distribute tribute. 

Schematic of Sub 1-4. This substructure has a square plan measuring 11m (36ft) on a side and 4.7m (15.4ft) tall. The stairways are 5m (16.4ft) wide and are oriented to the four sacred directions. The three-tiered corners between the stairs contain a total of 48 separate scenes, with 39 uncovered as of 2012. The scenes in the southeastern corner are in the best condition, while those in some of the other corners are badly deteriorated. 

Murals of the southeast corner of Sub 1-4. Seen above are four panels from the first and second tiers of the pyramid. In subsequent photos, I will show each of the murals above, which are among the best preserved of the pyramid's images. By analyzing the style of the hieroglyphics, the ceramic fragments, and the scenes themselves, archeologists were able to date Sub 1-4 to between 620-700 AD. This time period was at the height of Calakmul's power.

Layout of the murals. The images were painted on the corner panels of each of the pyramid's three tiers, as well as on the sides of the stairs. Archeologists numbered each image using the system shown. There are spaces for a total of 48 pictures, with 16 on each level and 12 in each of the four corners. By 2012, when the Ramon Carrasco Vargas' report was written, 30 images had been exposed on the first two tiers of the pyramid, with another nine on the third.

The murals of Sub 1-4 were covered over by the subsequent enlargements of the pyramid. Usually, this would have resulted in their destruction. However, the ancient architects seem to have considered the images to be especially important because they took great care to protect them with a layer of mud. They would not be seen again for nearly fourteen hundred years. 

A closer look at the murals

Mural SE-S1 at the lower left of the southeast corner. This is the best-known of all the murals. You may recognize the Woman in Blue and the male drinker from the first two photos. The caption just above the man says "Atole Person", referring to the two women. The four hieroglyphs just behind the Woman in Blue reads "taking off the load". This apparently refers to her removal of the heavy pot from the head of the kneeling woman.

In the murals, the men are bare-chested and wear sarong-type garments around their waists. Usually they wear patterned scarves around their heads. The women are dressed in garments that cover their breasts and extend to mid-calf. Most of the women wear their hair in a kind of ponytail and use red makeup to partially cover their faces. The face of the kneeling woman is entirely red and this may be an attempt to illustrate her exertion. 

Mural SE-S2 shows the "Tamale Person". In this scene, two people are seated cross-legged, facing each other. The woman wears a broad brimmed hat and offers a plate of food to the man, who appears to be eating. In front of the woman is a large basket containing two round glyphs which say "Tamale". The two glyphs above say "Tamale Person", referring to the woman. The pair sit on a platform, under which are three large untranslated glyphs. 

Mural NE-N1 shows another eating scene. This time the man is on the left and faces a woman who offers him a small pot of food. The man wears a plaid head scarf and holds an oval-shaped object in his right hand. His open mouth suggests that he is eating and that the object he holds is food. 

In front of him is a platter containing a large round object with an opening in its top. The object in his hand is the same color as the opening, suggesting that it may have come from there. The glyphs are difficult to translate but may read as either calabaza (pumpkin) or nixtamal (maiz dough). My bet is calabaza, since the reddish color of the object is similar to the interior of a pumpkin.

Mural SE-E2 is captioned "Tobacco Person".  When I first saw this mural, I thought it showed two scribes or artists working on a project. However the archeological analysis (as well as the caption) suggests a very different scene. Tobacco was sometimes used medicinally. When mixed with secretions of the bufo marinus toad, it could also produce hallucinogenic effects. 

The shaman on the right has used a spatula to dip the tobacco- hallucinogen out of the pot he holds in his left hand. He offers it to the man on the left, who is bending over while supporting himself with his hands. He appears to be spitting, or possibly vomiting, since his mouth is open and something is dripping from it. This would suggest the beginning of an hallucinogenic experience.

Detail of Mural SE-E1 shows another scene with atole. There are two figures, but the full mural also contains a woman, out of sight on the right. The person on the left is bare-chested like a man but wears the face paint of a woman and a woman's hat. S/he holds a dipper in the left hand. Liquid pours from the dipper into a wide platter, which is balanced on a large basket. Cradled under the figure's right arm is a large pot, presumably the source of the liquid. 

The man on the right drinks deeply from a blue pot, probably containing the same fluid. He is stylishly attired, with a ring in his left ear and a fancy sarong around his lower body. The caption between the two figures says "Atole Person". An inscription on the rim of the blue pot reads "his atole" indicating that the container belongs to the man on the right. 

Mural EsS-LtE2 shows a porter lugging a large pot. His only attire is a loincloth and high-backed sandals. He carries a stout walking staff in his right hand. A tumpline passes across his forehead and extends back to support his burden. With his left hand, he holds the tumpline in place. This ancient method of carrying large objects can still be found in cultures world-wide, including parts of Mexico. 

The large pot on the porter's back is supported by a woven base. It's not clear what is in the pot. However, many of the murals involve food made from maiz, so the pot may contain dried kernels of the grain or possibly even freshly-made atole. Some sort of creature--possibly a possum--sits on the rim of the pot. Whether the creature is pet or a mythical image is unknown.

So, what are the Ch'iik Naahb murals all about? Several aspects make them unique. 1) Many of the key figures are female, an unusual feature in a Maya mural. 2) The captions describe roles rather than individual names, i.e. Atole Person, Tobacco Person, etc. 3) The interactions seem to be transactional, as in a market, rather than social gatherings of family or friends. 

All of this implies a market, with women as the primary sellers and men the buyers. However, archeologists are still mulling this over. The exact social mechanisms by which goods and services were exchanged in the ancient Maya world are still unclear. It has also been suggested that these scenes illustrate the distribution of tribute collected from Calakmul's many client states.

This completes Part 6 of my Calakmul series and concludes the series itself. I hope you have enjoyed this posting as well as the other five. If so, please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly.

Hasta luego, Jim

 

Calakmul Part 5 of 6: The Gran Plaza's astronomical observatory and the stelae of Structure V

Statue of a Maya shaman. This Late Classical figure was found in a burial at Jaina Island on Yucatan's Caribbean coast. Shamans were priests who had a very high status and performed a variety of functions. One of these was to act as astronomers. In that capacity, they used carefully designed observatories to track the movement of celestial bodies. Over time, the priests became aware of astronomical cycles including equinoxes and the solstices.  

This resulted in their invention of two calendars. A 365-day secular calendar interlocked with their 260-day religious calendar to form a 52 year cycle called the Calendar Round. The purpose was to predict planting and harvesting times, as well as to set the festival dates for their multitude of gods. In the process, shamans invented a mathematical system that included the concept of zero. This  development pre-dated the Persian invention of zero by many centuries. 

In this posting, we'll look at Structures IV, V, and VI. Structures IV and VI occupy the east and west sides of the Gran Plaza. Together, they form a complex astronomical observatory. Structure V divides the north and south part of the Gran Plaza and is adorned with ten different stelae. Their texts include fascinating hints about historical events and personalities. 

Structures IV and VI were used by star-gazing shamans. Standing at the entrance of the temple atop Structure VI (above, left), solstices and equinoxes could be viewed. On those days, ancient astronomers would sight through the fork of a stick to observe the sun as it topped one of the three temples (a, b, or c) on the Structure IV platform across the plaza. All three were carefully aligned to allow these crucial celestial events to be tracked.

It was maiz that made these events so important. Because maiz was economically fundamental to Maya society, it had attained a mystical status. The Maya creation myths and their views on the cosmos were closely intertwined with crop cycles. The ability to correctly predict planting or harvesting times gave the rulers for whom the shamans worked immense power. In the end, crop failures were among the fundamental causes of the Classic Maya civilization's collapse.

(Sketch from Calakmul: New Data from Ancient Maya Capital)

Structure VI

Structure VI was constructed in the Pre-Classic period. It stands on the west side of the Gran Plaza. It has three levels with a broad staircase on its eastern side. Stela 22 stands at the bottom of the staircase. At the top is an esplanade containing the remains of a one-story temple. From its central doorway, celestial observations could be made. Together, Structures VI and IV form an "E Group", named after a similar observatory at Uaxactun, another Pre-Classic site. 

Stelae 23 and 24, the white monuments on the esplanade level, once framed the temple's door. The two stelae were added in 702 AD and carry the images of a royal couple. The date coincides with the beginning of the reign of Yuknoom Took K'awiil, so the stelae may very well be dedicated to him and his queen. However, except for the date, the text is too weathered to decipher. (Photo from Latin American Studies) 

Structure IV

Structure IVb is the central temple on the Structure IV platform. It stands directly across the Gran Plaza from Structure VI and is flanked on the left by IVa and on the right by IVc. Structure IVb went through five construction phases. The earliest was during the Late Pre-Classic while the rest were constructed during the Classic era between 250-900 AD.

The tomb Tuun K'ab' Hix (520-546 AD), looted in ancient times, was discovered within IVb. Eight female skeletons were also found. Two of these had been decapitated, apparently to endow the building with a soul. A total of fourteen stelae have been discovered around Structure IVb. Some of these contain references to events that occurred between late 809 and mid-810 AD. In 809 Calakmul began a century of decline, leading to its abandonment in the tenth century. 

The ruins of Structure IVa, with Stela 8 in front. This temple is the least restored building around the Gran Plaza. When the temple was intact, astronomers standing on Structure VI could sight over IVa's top to determine if the the summer solstice had dawned. That date is important agriculturally because it marks the peak of the rainy season in Yucatan. 

In 721 AD, Yuknoom Took K'awiil erected Stela 8, the largest of the temple's three stelae. Its text refers to an event in 593 AD, involving a ruler named Uneh Chan (Scroll Serpent), who ruled the city of Dzibanche until his death in 611. Uneh Chan was the father of Yuknoom Ch'een II ("Yuknoom the Great") who, in 635, moved the seat of the Kaan Dynasty from Dzibanche to Calakmul. He then ascended the throne as kaloomte' (overlord) in 636. By erecting Stela 8, Yuknoom Took K'awiil appears to have been honoring his great grandfather, Uneh Chan. 

Structure IVc is on the south end of Structure IV's platform. The top of Structure IVc's two-room temple marks the position of the sun as it rises on the winter solstice. That is the shortest day of the year and traditionally ends the Maya secular calendar year. The temple rooms are parallel and aligned north-to-south. They are connected by central doorways that face west.

The temple has three stelae. One of them is mounted in the center of the second step of the broad, west-facing staircase. The other two stand to its left and right at the plaza level and are accompanied by altars in the form of stone disks. IVa and IVc are structurally quite similar, except that IVc is somewhat larger.

Structure V and its stelae

South-facing side of Structure V, showing Stela 28. At the end of the Early Classic period, Structure V was converted from a simple temple to the most important stela shrine at Calakmul. In total, ten of these monuments were erected around the building. In the photo,      Stela 29 stands out of sight to the right of Stela 28. The north side of Structure V has a staircase that leads up to a broad esplanade containing Stelae 30 and 31, as well as a two-room temple. 

Stelae 32-37 are located at the Plaza level along the north side. The texts are largely illegible, but carry dates ranging from 657 to 672. This range is significant because Calakmul fought two wars with Tikal during this period. The first was fought in 657, when Calakmul was still ruled by the aging Yuknoom Ch'een II. It was probably his son and heir, Yuknoom Yichak K'ahk' (Claw of Fire), who won that war, as well as a second conflict that began in 672. 

The image on Stela 28 is the wife of the ruler on Stela 29. The female figure's body stands erect, with her head looking to the left toward her mate. She wears an elaborate costume, including a large head dress. Significantly, she stands upon a captive, a sign of domination and military power. Calakmul is unique for its male and female "paired stelae". Female members of the ruling elite seem to have possessed a political status absent in most other Classic Maya cities.

The image of the ruler appears on Stela 29. This monument stands several yards to the right of Stela 28. The image on Stela 29 is more weathered than 28, but the left-profile of a man can still be seen. He looks toward his female partner and, like her, stands upon a captive. They are the ancient Maya world's equivalent to a modern "power couple."

Both stelae carry the date 623 AD. This places them at the beginning of the reign of Tajo'm Uk'ab 'K'ak', of the Kaan Dynasty, who ruled Dzibanche from 622 to 630. Given this coincidence of dates, it likely that the figures are Tajo'm Uk'ab 'K'ak' and his wife. Like Stela 8, these stelae may have been built after the dynastic migration from Dzibanche to Calakmul, in order to show reverence for ancestral figures from the Kaan's place of origin.

The inscriptions on the side of Stela 29 are largely unreadable. Tajo'm Uk'ab 'K'ak' died in 630 AD, and the very next year the name of a Kaan ajaw (lord) from Dzibanche is first mentioned in connection with Calakmul. The inscription was found in a distant city and the man's name was Yuknoom Head, another son of Uneh Chan. This would make him the brother, or perhaps half-brother, of Tajo'm Uk'ab 'K'ak'. 

The inscription mentioning Yuknoom Head speaks of his victory in a fratricidal conflict within Dzibanche's dynasty, following the death of Tajo'm Uk'ab 'K'ak'. In the same year, members of Kaan Dynasty began to move from Dzibanche to Calakmul. By 635, the Kaan political takeover was complete and Calakmul was proclaimed as the dynasty's new seat. Then, in 636, a ruler named Yuknoom Ch'een II ascended the throne of Calakmul. 

He became the overlord not only of Calakmul, but of the broadest constellation of city-states ever assembled in the ancient Maya world. Yuknoom Head and Yuknoom Ch'een II may well have been the same person. A new ruler sometimes adopted the name of an illustrious ancestor and Yuknoom Ch'een I had been a famous 5th century ruler of Dzibanche. It is likely that Yuknoom Head re-named himself Yuknoom Ch'een II at his coronation.

This completes Part 5 of my Calakmul series. I hope you have enjoyed it and, if so, you will please leave any thoughts or questions in the Comments section below or email me directly. 

Hasta luego, Jim