Aguascalientes Part 3: The stunning murals of the Palacio Gobierno

Mural portraying Quetzalcoatl , the famous pre-Hispanic Plumed Serpent.  Quetzalcoatl was one of the most important gods of ancient Mesoamerica. Symbols depicting him go back as far as the Olmecs of 900 BC. To the Aztecs, he was associated with the wind, Venus, and the dawn. He was also the god of knowledge thought to have taught humans how to use corn. The Plumed Serpent was revered especially by merchants, priests, and craftsmen. In modern times, Quetzalcoatlhas come to symbolize Mexico's deep pre-Hispanic roots. 

In my last posting, I showed the marvelous architecture of the Government Palace . This time I will focus on the stunning murals that cover the walls of the first and second floor arcades surrounding the Palacio's two large courtyards. The murals were painted in 1961 and portray Aguascalientes' role in the political and social history of Mexico. The artist, Oswaldo Barra Cunningham (1922-1999) , was a Chilean and student of the great Mexican muralist, Diego Rivera . Like Rivera's work, Barra's is richly colored and thickly peopled with historical figures. Some of the mural's non-historical bystanders wear the faces of Barra's friends and acquaintances.


Conquest and colonial exploitation

Armored conquistadors blaze away at fleeing native people. When Nuño Beltrán de Guzman marched through this area in the early 1540s, he slaughtered or enslaved whatever indigenous people he encountered. In the earliest stages of this invasion, the native people were terrified of the Spanish horses and guns. However, these were not the civilised, city-dwelling, indigenous people of the Valley of Mexico whom the Spanish conquered in only a few years. The inhabitants of north-central Mexico's semi-desert highland plateau were fierce, hardy, and independent. These were the fearsome Chichimecswhose warriors had plagued the Aztecs and other civilized pre-Hispanic cultures for centuries. They would not easily accept the steel Spanish boot on their necks. 

Incessant Chichimec attacks forced the Spanish to move the location of Guadalajara  at least 4 times before it was settled in its current location. On the upper right, a priest extends a protective hand over the back of a native. Here, Barra demonstrates the ambiguous role of the Church in the conquest. On the one hand, there were notable examples of priests who attempted to protect the indigenous people from the worst abuses. On the other hand, the Church itself materially benefited from the exploitation and forced labor of the native populations.

A Chichimec woman and her son prepare weapons.  While his mother crafts arrowheads, the boy tests out a new bow. Note the Spanish helmet and steel glove next to the boy, no doubt captured in battle. The armadillo and the fiercely glaring mountain lion symbolize the struggle. They represent an armored but clumsy Spaniard confronted by a lithe and powerful native warrior. The murals are filled with many such vignettes, each telling a story of its own. Mexico's great age of murals grew out of the 1910 Revolution and its aftermath. The country's new leaders wanted to educate the largely illiterate population about the history of Mexico and the values ​​of the Revolution. To help this process, they recruited great artists like Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros and others to paint large murals inside public buildings all over Mexico.

Chichimec raiders truss a captured Spanish girl over the back of a horse. After silver was discovered in the ravines around Zacatecas, large-scale mining began. Caravans of heavily laden pack animals traveled south, carrying the silver to Guadalajara and on to Mexico City. Similar caravans supplies carried north to the mines at Zacatecas. During the 50 years of war between the Chichimecs and the Spanish, these caravans made tempting targets. Spanish civilians traveling with the caravans included women and girls. They were sometimes seized by the Chichimecs as slaves or, if they were lucky, as wives for the warriors. The Spanish established a string of settlements between the mines and Guadalajara to act as rest stops and military posts. Aguascalientes was founded as one of these.

Scene from the Battle of the Nopales . As a  Chichimec girl escapes with a captured Spanish horse, a semi-concealed warrior prepares to fire at her pursuers. Spanish reports described the warriors, both men and women, as fighting in the nude. The men were armed with bows, spears, and clubs, but carried no shields. During the 50-year ChichimecWar, the indigenous people quickly recognized the value of horses in warfare. The broad, open plains of their territory were ideal cavalry country. However, they fought on foot too, particularly in the earlier stages. 

When not mounted, they attacked in open array, led by archers who were followed by spearmen and others carrying obsidian-edged clubs. Their nomadic lifestyle made them very difficult to conquer. The Spanish war technology and firepower used so effectively against the cities and fixed settlements of the Aztecs were of little use against opponents like these. In the end, the colonial authorities turned to the Church to negotiate a settlement acceptable to the Chichimecs . The long war officially ended in 1600.

Indigenous miners clamber up rickety ladders carrying heavy loads of silver ore.  They are supervised by a narrow-eyed man wielding a whip. After the war ended, the evangelizing friars persuaded the nomads to settle in villages around rustic adobe churches. In some cases, the settlers were former indigenous soldiers from other areas, brought in to fight the Chichimecs. The mine owners began to recruit from the villages, often as forced labor under the encomienda system. When the encomienda system was abolished during the indigenous population crash of the 17th Century, wage labor was employed to lure workers to the area. The hours were long and the work and treatment were brutal. Tools were primitive and accidents frequent. A miner would enter the dark tunnels before sunrise and emerge only after dark. Once he began at the mines, a typical indigenous worker's life was short and he often never saw daylight again.

The fruits of the miners' hard labor are delivered. A blonde angel hands the ore to a group of elegantly clad Spaniards, while others dance or drink in the background. Seen here, and in the previous photo are the extreme ends of the social spectrum in colonial society . The Spaniards shown are probably  peninsulares , also known as gachupines . They were residents of New Spain but were born in Old Spain. Next down the scale were the criollos , Spaniards born in New World. They could amass wealth through mines, commerce, or hacienda ownership but the top--and very lucrative--official positions were all occupied by  peninsulares. 

Next, came the mestizos , who were of mixed Spanish and indigenous blood. Legend has it that the very first of these was the illegitimate child of Hernán Cortéz and his indigenous mistress known as La Malinche . The overwhelming majority of Mexicans today are mestizos . Below the mestizos were the native people, who in many cases were little better than slaves but did have limited protection through laws and sympathetic priests. Finally, there were the Africans--outright slaves--imported during the indigenous population crash of the 16th and 17th Centuries.


Independence, turmoil, and more oppression

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José Pavon Morelos were early Independence War leaders. They were both priests who became generals leading large but undisciplined and ill-equipped armies against Royalist troops. Morelos is seen wielding the sword in the center and Hidalgo is behind him with a bald head fringed by long white hair. Hidalgo launched the war on September 15, 1810 from the steps of his church in Dolores, Guanajato. His famous  cry  for freedom drew immediate support. He declared an end to slavery and established the Virgin of Guadalupe--patron of the poor--as the symbol of the revolt. These two acts made him a hero to the indigenous people. 

After defeating all forces sent against him during the first few months of the war, Hidalgo was defeated at Puente Calderón  and later captured and executed. Morelos had studied under Hidalgo at a religious school in Valladolid (now Morelia). He took up the torch and was successful in southern Mexico until he, too, was captured and executed. Both men were excommunicated by the Church whose hierarchy stood firmly with the Royalists. 

In the foreground you see the largely-indigenous soldiers. Often armed with little more than machetes, axes and pitchforks, their greatest weapon was an intense hatred arising from 300 years of Spanish oppression. However, this sword cuts both ways. Their animosity led to atrocities against civilians including Spanish women and children. Their criollo allies drew back, appalled and fearful that they might be next. In truth, many of the criollos  who supported the insurgents did not so much want to change society as to oust the peninsulares and take control themselves.

The blonde whore of wealth and power lounges in the midst of her ardent admirers. The War for Independence was stagnated until 1821 when a key Royalist commander named Agustin de Iturbechanged sides. Together, he and insurgent commander Vicente Guerrero declared Mexico's independence. Spain had little choice but to withdraw. Iturbe was an opportunist, however, like so many others in Mexico's turbulent history. He made himself Emperor of Mexico but only occupied that post for eight months before the outraged insurgents ousted him and declared a republic. 

From then until 1867, Mexico experienced one revolt or foreign invasion after another. The opportunists had a field day. Chief among these was Antonio López de Santa Ana, who can be seen decked out in gold braid in the upper left. He was a politician/general who saw himself as the Napoleon of the West. He is remembered in the US as the victor in the Battle of the Alamo, and in Mexico as the man who lost half of his territory. The instability produced weakness which led to two catastrophic foreign invasions. The first was by the United States. Many in the US, including Congressmen Abraham Lincoln, recognized the war as naked aggression. US forces seized Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and California. The US had previously annexed Texas, which had been seized by US settlers who defended Mexico's ban on slavery. 

Internal instability continued with the Reform War between Conservatives and Liberals. When the Conservatives lost to the forces of the Liberal Benito Juarez (upper right, just under the flames), they encouraged the French to invade. Austrian Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian was installed by the French as Mexico's second Emperor (see the man with the flowing blonde beard in the upper center). When Benito Juarez finally drove the French out--with the material assistance of President Abraham Lincoln--he began the first period of sustained, stable, and honest government since the beginning of the War of Independence. No opportunist, Juarez is honored everywhere in Mexico as a true patriot.

A haughty landowner supervises the whipping of a peon . From the earliest days, most haciendas were self-enclosed worlds, remote from outside control or authority. The landowners (owners) lived like feudal lords and dispensed "justice" as they saw fit. The peon (hacienda worker) above may have tried to escape debts run up in the Tienda de Raya (company store). The stripe store  had two functions. First, it was a lucrative profit center, since other, cheaper sources of daily necessities were often far away. On some haciendas, the peones were paid with tokens that could only be used in the company store. Second, the debts incurred at the store became a key mechanism for controlling the labor supply. By law, peones could not leave the hacienda with outstanding debts. The peones were almost all illiterate and the  landowner or his mayordomo ( administrator )  kept the books. Who was to say when a debt was really paid off? Punishments for running away, or even disrespect, could be severe.

A woman sells tacos, while another woman and her daughter sell flowers. Life was hard in pre-Revolution Mexico, as it had always been since the Conquest and as it still is in many areas today. The scene above could have been found in any town of the 1800s. I saw an almost identical cast of characters when I visited the street market in my town of Ajijic just today. While there is still considerable poverty in Mexico, the opportunities available to ordinary people are vastly greater than before the Revolution. There are also much greater legal protections for workers and the dignity and self-respect they enjoy today far exceed anything known before the Revolution.

A street musician strums his guitar while sleekly dressed people lounge just beyond the railing. Street musicians have been a feature of Mexican life for centuries and are still ubiquitous in Mexico. They perform for whatever people are willing to give them. I always tip the musicians for their delightful music and because I know it is a hard way to make a living. The scene above shows how closely the wealthy and the poor have always lived to one another, while still being separated by the powerful economic and social barriers represented by the stone railing.


The Porfirato

Again, the privileged elite dote on a Reubenesque female figure representing corruption. She holds the scales of justice on which a top-hatted man has placed a bag of gold. While a disapproving Juarez looks on (upper left), sycophants swarm around a moustachioed and medal-bedecked Porfirio Diaz. During the Reform War and the later French Occupation, General Diaz had won numerous victories. Following the departure of the French and the re-establishment of the Republic, he turned out to be another of Mexico's many opportunists. After leading an unsuccessful revolt against Juarez, Diaz was exiled for a time. 

However, after Juarez died in office, Diaz re-emerged politically. In May 1877, he was elected President of Mexico. Diaz held that post, either directly or through proxies for 35 years. During this period, known as the Porfirato , he maintained power through rigged elections, secret police repression, and the bribing or assassination of opponents. The last was referred to as a choice between silver or lead. Notice the turmoil behind the top hats. One banner proclaims "Strike!" (strike). Throughout the Porfirato there were revolts by campesinos and strikes by workers, usually put down with great brutality .

A campesino clutches his harvested corn as a hand reaches out to claim the landowner's share. Many landowners did not plant all of their own land but rented some of it out to share-croppers. Under the Porfirato, Mexico rapidly modernized. Foreign corporations, welcomed by Diaz, stitched networks of railroads across the nation. Because of the difficulty of getting products to broader markets, many haciendas had long been status symbols rather than serious economic concerns. Suddenly, products that used to take weeks or months to deliver could be transported in days or hours. Cash crops such as agave for tequila, sisal for hemp string, and sugar cane became immensely profitable. 

Available arable land became scarce.  Hacendados all over Mexico began seizing property belonging to indigenous villages or small landholders. Diaz officials warned their gaze from corrupt legal maneuvers or even seizures at the point of a gun. Many h acendados became multi-millionaires living in plush mansions while the rural mestizo population became landless. The indigenous villages were a special target. They had employed a communal land system since centuries before the Conquest. One unfortunate effect of Juarez' earlier reforms was to delegitimize the communal system, forcing individual ownership, thus making the land that much easier to steal.

Women and children line up to purchase the corn their husbands and fathers raised. The maize is hurt out grudgingly by a hacienda employee who keeps his pistol close. Some people (see upper right) began the work of educating the illiterate masses, as a first step to reform. As you can see above, many were too busy staying alive to pay much attention.

One man hangs, while another's ears are cut off. Notice that the hung man's feet are tied to a bag of earth (earth) to ensure he strangles. During the Porfirato, land ownership by small operators and indigenous villagers was increasingly being strangled. The landownersand factory owners were under no illusion that educating hacienda and factory workers would do anything but cause unrest. The owners saw ignorance and docility as the best policy and sometimes took strong action to enforce it. There is no question that Mexico became a much wealthier and more developed country under Diaz. 

Transportation and communications improved with the new railroad, telegraph, and telephone systems. Ports such as Vera Cruz were modernized to handle mining and cash crop exports and the imports of foreign goods. Foreign investors scrambled to take advantage of the Mexican bonanza. Hacienda owners smiled as their profits continued to skyrocket. Owners of the new factories--both foreign and Mexican--gloried in their ability to pay rock bottom wages while the government repressed worker attempts to organize. With the fire of public anger building steadily underneath, and Diaz' ​​rigid lid clamped tight on the political kettle, pressure began to build toward an inevitable--and huge--explosion.

The winners in Mexico's new capitalist economy enjoy their good fortune. What they don't seem to notice is how much of the winnings are raked away by the out-of-view figure of the croupier, who represents the foreign bankers. This scene demonstrates both the profligacy of the nouveau riche and their fecklessness in allowing the nation's wealth to be increasingly dominated by foreign interests. They were caricatured in the late 19th Century by a political cartoonist named José Guadalupe Posada. He portrayed Mexico's nouveau riche as catrinas --skeletons elegantly dressed in the latest French finery. Posada was born and raised in Aguascalientes and his work is displayed in a local museum that I will show in a later posting. Catrina figures, and endless variations on their theme, are still wildly popular throughout Mexico. While the wealthy party, the steam in that kettle began to whistle.


Revolution

Mexican generals assassinate revolutionary leaders Francisco Madero and José Piño Suarez. Madero is on the far left holding his Plan of San Luis Potosí and shaking the clawed hand of one of the treacherous officers. Piño Suarez stands behind him to the right. General Victoriano Huerta points a gun at the heads of Madero and Piño Suarezas other officers brandish knives. Francisco Madero ran against Diaz in the 1910 presidential election, while Piño Suarez ran for Governor of Yucatan. Both were arrested but escaped to the US. On November 20, 1910, they issued their Plan of San Luis Potosí. This called for widely popular land, labor, and election reforms. 

Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, Venustiano Carranza, and many others answered the call. Diaz was quickly defeated and the old dictator resigned and sailed for France in May, 1911. Ironically, he would be the only top figure during the Revolution to die peacefully in bed. Madero and Piño Suarez were elected President and Vice President of Mexico. Although popular, Madero proved weak and a poor judge of character. He was an upper-class  landowner and, like many of the Crillos during the Independence War, he wasn't really interested in the fundamental changes demanded by the workers and peasants. 

Madero made the disastrous mistake of trusting Diaz' ​​former generals. A group of them, led by Victoriano Huerta, conspired with US Ambassador Lane Wilson to stage a coup and set up a military dictatorship. During the coup, Madero and Piño Suarez were murdered in what became known as the Ten Tragic Days . Villa and Carranza joined with Zapata against Huerta. Zaparta was already in revolt because of Madero's failure to follow through on land reform.

Pancho Villa (left) and Emiliano Zapata (right) sit in front of their soldiers.  Villa and Zapata possessed many similarities. Both grew up as poor country boys. Zapata lived on a small ranch and was an expert horse trainer. Even prior to Madero's 1910 proclamation, Zapata had begun to lead armed revolts against illegal land seizures in his native Morelos State. Villa grew up as a share-cropping peasant in Chihuahua far to the north. After a local landownerRaped his sister, Villa killed the man and rode off to the mountains to become a bandit. Both were close to the people and strongly supported land reform and an end to the hacienda system. 

Both Villa and Zapata were natural leaders beloved by their soldiers and, although lacking formal training, displayed great military ability. On the other hand, their personalities were quite different. Villa was ebullient and outgoing, while Zapata was intense and introspective. Of the two, Zapata had the most comprehensive and well-thought-out program of social reform called the Plan of Ayala, which he implemented even while the fighting continued. Villa seems to have been more of a "throw it up against the wall and see if it sticks" kind of guy. There is no doubt that they were the two foremost social revolutionaries in the struggle. They only met a few times and both came to tragic ends. Most in Mexico still consider them heroes.

Revolutionary leaders gathered in Aguascalientes in October 1914 to draft a constitution.   The fight to overthrow the usurper Huerta was the last time the leaders of the Revoluiton would all be on the same side. Zapata emerged up from the south and Villa, under the command of Carranza, drove south. However, friction was already growing between Villa on the one side, and Carranza and his chief supporter Álvaro Obregon on the other. Defying Carranza's orders, Villa seized the vital silver-production center of Zacatecas. This broke the back of Huerta's resistance and, in July 1914, Huerta fled the country. He later died in a US jail. The revolutionaries agreed to meet in Aguascalientes to hammer out a constitution. They gathered at the Morelos Theater, just off Plaza de la Patria.  Although each sent delegations, none of the top leaders personally attended except Álvaro Obregon. Jealousy and distrust among them were increasing.

In an apocryphal scene, Zapata, Villa, and other leaders sign a Mexican flag.One of the most powerful convention speakers was Paulino Martinez, a member of Zapata's delegation. He demanded that the convention address "the social question," urging "land, liberty, and justice" rather than "presidential armchairs for those of ambition, wealth, and authority." He objected to "privileges for a particular group without political equality, collective welfare, and land for all." 

The revolutionary leaders attending included many who were, indeed, men of ambition. They recognized that they could only realize those ambitions by listening to the demands of the workers and peasants who made up the bulk of their armies. Competing proposals for land reform and worker rights were soon developed by Carranza and Villa (Zapata was already implementing his Plan of Ayala). However, the failure of any of the Big Three to attend crippled the effectiveness of the convention. Through their delegations, Villa and Zapata agreed to support General Eulalio Gutiérrez Ortiz as interim President, but Carranza and Obregon refused. The third stage of the revolution was about to begin. Before its echoes faded, all four of these leaders would be dead from assassins' bullets.

Children surround a teacher who holds up Article 3 of the 1917 Constitution. Among other things, this article provides that elementary education shall be compulsory, that all education provided by the State shall be free, and that religious instruction in public schools is prohibited. That was truly revolutionary in Mexico. From the earliest colonial times, education had been denominated by the Catholic Church. Curbing the overwhelming social and economic control by the Church over national life had been the aim of reformers back to the days of Benito Juarez and his Reform Laws.

Scientists, philosophers and educators oversee the education of young children. Interestingly, what the children are watching on the TV is Centeotl, the Aztec corn god. However many modern ideas spread in Mexico, ancient ways persist. The education provisions of the Constitution, and the policies they set in motion, arguably caused as much of a social earthquake as the breakup of the haciendas and distribution of their lands to the landless. The government sent thousands of low-paid teachers out into the hinterlands and initiated a policy of "each one teach one." This campaign began to dramatically reduce the illiteracy rate, at least at the basic level. As with land reform, there was bitter and sometimes violent resistance. Both the Church and the  landowners  viewed the education campaign as a mechanism for undermining their traditional control over the rural population. Resistance to rural education was bitter and sometimes violent. As late as 1939, rural teachers were being murdered by Catholic fanatics.

Workers release doves of peace.The reforms of the Revolution didn't just distribute land and educate the illiterate. Maximum hours and minimum wages were set for workers, along with other reforms and protections. The right to organize was officially recognized and worker organizations proliferated. These not only enabled a united voice when dealing with employers, they provided a vehicle for worker and peasant political power. Mexico wasn't a "workers' paradise" after the Revolution, and certainly isn't today. Corruption is a problem and laws protecting workers are sometimes ignored. 

An expanding population has meant that the lands distributed in the 1920s-30s are no longer capable of supporting all those who might want to farm. The North American Free Trade Agreement has resulted in the dumping of tax-subsidized US agricultural surpluses, particularly corn, on the Mexican market. This has caused millions of small farmers to lose their land. Ironically, many have had to cross Mexico's northern border to work for the very agribusinesses that did the dumping. Still, with all of this, it would be hard to find any Mexican willing to go back to pre-Revolution times with no rights, no dignity, and little hope for change.

This completes Part 3 of my Aguascalientes series. I hope you enjoyed these wonderful murals and the story they tell. Anyone who wants to respond should either leave their comment in the Comments section below or email me directly. If it says "no comments" at the bottom of the page, that means no one has yet commented. Just click on that and it will take you to the Comments page.

If you leave a question in the Comments section, PLEASE leave your email address so I can respond.

See you later, Jim

Aguascalientes Part 2: The Cathedral and the Government Palace

Catedral de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, Plaza de la Patria, Aguascalientes.  The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption is a very attractive example of Mexico's 18th Century religious architecture. It occupies the northeast corner of Plaza de la Patria, which is the main plaza of the city. In Part 1 of this series, I provided a general survey of the Plaza and its surroundings. In Part 2, I will give you a detailed look the two most important colonial-era structures--the Cathedral and the Government Palace--so that you can appreciate their extraordinary beauty. One of the nicer aspects of this broad plaza is that the most important structures sit right on it and are not separated from it by a busy street. This makes the Centro of Aguascalientes a great place for strolling.

The north steeple of the Catedral is decorated with colored banners for Fiesta de la Asunción. Fiesta participants paraded right in front of our hotel during our visit (see last post). This neo-classical steeple was added in 1764 and is the one of many changes to the church over the centuries. Its twin to the south wasn't added until 1946. There are three levels to each steeple, and each level has four bells, giving the two towers a total of 24 bells of various sizes.  The earliest religious structure built on this spot was a rustic chapel put up by evangelising Franciscan friars in 1575, the year the city was founded by Juan de Montoro. He created Aguascalientes as a postal and rest stop on the route between Guadalajara and the booming silver mines of Zacatecas to the north.

The main facade also has three levels, each framed by columns and statues. The facade was constructed with pink cantera, a popular colonial building stone. The large, carved wooden entrance door is centred on the bottom section. Above the door is an opening known as a choir window, surrounded by angels and decorative flowers carved into the stone. The third section, above the choir window, is framed by two columns. In the centre is a stone plaque showing the Virgin of the Assumption. On top of the third section, between the two steeples, is a high relief carving of the Trinity.

In a niche between two columns stands one of the Doctors of the Church. According to my good friend Richard Perry, of the website Exploring Colonial Mexico, four Doctors are displayed. They include Saints Ambrose and Gregory on the bottom level and Saints Augustine and Jerome above. The title "doctor" denotes a saint who is considered special for making a significant contribution to Catholic theology. Each niche is supported by a pair of pelicans which are shown pecking at their breasts to draw blood. This related to the blood sacrifice of Jesus. The columns are decorated by spiralling floral vines in a style called Solomnic, which originated in the Eastern Mediterranean. Legend has it that the Roman Emperor Constantine (the first Christian Emperor) brought three spirally-carved columns to Rome from the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. Since Solomon's temple was destroyed almost 1000 years before Constantine's time, this is unlikely. The original "Solomnic" columns probably originated in Greece.  There are four of these niches in the facade, two on the first and two on the second levels, each framed by the columns.

The great carved wooden door also has three levels. Two smaller doors are inset on either side of the bottom level. The capstone of the arch above the doorway is St. Michael the Archangel. Framing the doors are two  stone columns carved with flowers. These bear a striking resemblance to carvings I saw at the House of Eagles, the headquarters of the most important Aztec warrior cult at Mexico City's Templo Mayor. Each of the four petals of the Aztec flowers  represents one of the sacred cardinal directions and each direction has a special god assigned to it. For example, the east was assigned to Tlaloc, the god of rain, life, and fertility. Indigenous craftsmen who built churches like this all over Mexico often included the old designs as a subtle way of keeping their religions alive. Church leaders directing the construction would probably not have understood the symbolism. The indigenous workers who provided the forced-labor used to construct these great edifices would have had the last laugh.

Detail from the center section of the entrance door. The intricate flower designs surrounding a central face are typical of the Baroque style popular in the 17th and early 18th Centuries. The eyes of the face are closed and the tongue hangs down the chin. The features are almost simian, like those of a sleeping monkey framed with jungle foliage. Thirty years after the first chapel was constructed, it was replaced by a second one in 1605. Those 30 years were tough for the Spanish settlers. The fierce nomadic tribes in the area were generically known as Chichimecs. They deeply resented the Spanish occupation of their territory and their attacks were unrelenting. At one point, Aguascalientes' Spanish inhabitants were reduced to one officer, 16 soldiers, and two civilians. The last attack occurred in 1593, although the Chichimec War officially continued until 1600. The Spanish authorities finally gave up trying to militarily suppress the Chichimecs and let Church officials negotiate a peaceful settlement. The conquistadors had managed to overthrow the powerful and sophisticated Aztec Empire in only three years, but the war against the naked nomads of the north lasted for fifty.  

The main nave of the church shows a neo-classical influence. Notice the people kneeling in the center aisle toward the front. They traveled all the way up the aisle on their knees, stopping periodically to pray. The windows lining the top of the nave walls and surrounding the inside of the dome provided considerable natural light, making my photography easier. The current cathedral was begun in 1704 by a Spanish priest named Antonio Flores de Acevedo. Construction continued for 34 more years until the building (minus its steeples) was substantially completed by the priest Manuel Colon de Larreategui in 1738. Another 208 years would have to pass before the second steeple was erected and the Cathedral was finally complete.

The arched ceiling of the nave is dazzlingly decorated. The cap of each arch along the nave is a small face surrounded by plaster foliage covered by gold leaf. The numerous chandeliers provide light in the evening. Almost all surfaces are decorated by painted floral patterns, plaster carvings, or other decorations. In 1889, Pope Leon XIII created the diocese of Aguascalientes and made this church the cathedral, or seat of the bishop. Interestingly it is also a basilica, which means that it has been given a special status by a pope. In this case, it is the site of pilgrimages honouring the Virgin of the Assumption.

The ceiling above the main entrance. Notice how the inside of the frames of the windows on either side are also beautifully decorated. I am often surprised to find exquisite work done on obscure surfaces that are difficult to see and probably go unnoticed by most passersby. The corinthian capitals on the tops columns seen at the bottom of the photo show the neo-classical style. It is not unusual to find a variety of styles used in a single edifice like this. Constructed over the course of centuries, and often remodelled, centuries of architectural history can be seen in a single building.

View of the altar area from a side chapel. The Virgin of the Assumption can be seen in front of the small, white-topped cupola on the right. The interior of the main dome, and some of its light-providing windows, can be seen at the upper right. Numerous floral bouquets are arranged at the foot of the Virgin.

View of the dome and surrounding ceiling area over the altar. The top of the Virgin's cupola can be seen at the bottom of the  photo. The shapes and designs overhead are mesmerising. The centerpiece is the mandala-like interior of the dome.  The dome is framed by four triangular areas, each with a human figure engaged in some symbolic religious activity. This is my favorite shot of the inside of the Cathedral.

Each of the figures surrounding the dome is different and involved in a different sort of activity. The one above is a bald, bearded man who appears to be writing on a tablet with a quill pen. Hovering behind him is a large bird, probably an eagle, which may be whispering in his ear, or perhaps pecking at his head. I am not familiar enough with the symbolism to say for sure. These old churches are packed with mysterious little details like this, making them fascinating places to visit.


The Government Palace

El Palacio Gobierno occupies the southwest corner of the Plaza de la Patria. Like the Cathedral, this building opens directly on the Plaza, without the intervention of a busy street. The large, two-story Baroque building was originally constructed as a late 17th Century palace, but now contains the executive offices of the state government of Aguascalientes. The architect created a visual contrast by using deep red tezontle for the walls and creamy pink cantera to frame the windows and doors. Tezontle is very strong but, like most volcanic rocks, is light. The Aztecs used it in their building projects and believed it to be the remains of a previously destroyed world. Cantera is also of volcanic origin, but softer and easier to carve. Because of this, and because it can absorb air and moisture without expanding, cantera was favored by colonial architects for fine exterior work.

The balcony above the main entrance of the Palacio has a coat-of-arms and a brass bell. The coat-of-arms belongs to the Rincón Gallardo family, one of whose members began construction of the palace in 1665. The bell is used to commemorate the beginning of the War of Independence. Seats of government at all levels possess similar second-floor plaza-front balconies with similar bells. These are rung by the local chief executive as a part of the re-enactment of Father Miguel Hidalgo's famous bell-ringing and grito (cry) for revolt against the Spanish in 1810. Notice also the beautiful talavera tiles that extend all along the roof line. Puebla was the early source of most of this kind of tile, and these may have been transported from there by the same mule trains that took the silver south from Zacatecas.

A walk through the ziguan (entrance corridor) leads to the first of two courtyards.  The graceful staircase leads up to a landing and then continues up further staircases to the left and right. From the landing, a similar staircase leads down into the second courtyard. This complex arrangement of staircases reminded me of an Escher painting. The staircase arrangement forms both the centrepiece of the palace's interior and nicely divides the courtyards. During the 17th Century, the descendants of the original conquistadors, along with many who arrived later, grabbed huge chunks of land in Mexico. The forebears of the Rincón Gallardo family began to accumulate great estates through land grants from the King of Spain in 1601. Some of these properties were vacant because of the native population crash following the Conquest. Between the fall of the Aztecs and the end of the 17th Century, as much as 90% of the indigenous population died because of disease and mistreatment.

View from the bottom of the staircase back through the ziguan. Arcades with arched portales border the courtyards on both the ground and second floor levels. The interior walls of the arcades are covered by an extraordinary set of murals detailing the history of Aguascalientes. I will devote a later posting to these murals. Throughout the 300 years of the colonial period and the 100 years separating the War of Independence and the Revolution, land-hungry Spaniards and Mexicans often used less-than-legal means to secure new holdings. They sometimes seized property legally belonging to surviving indigenous communities. This often ignited disputes that were not settled until after the 1910 Revolution. The bitterness of that conflict was in part due to the often centuries-old memories of the seizures.

The scores of columns supporting the second floor form natural space dividers.  The rows of columns channel movement while maintaining a sense of openness. Whether legitimately or otherwise, over a period of about 200 years the Rincón Gallardo family assembled one of the largest estates of New Spain, containing many haciendas with vast amounts of land. Their properties extended from Guanajuato in the south to Zacatecas in the north. At one time, their lands included over 1/3  of the territory of the present State of Aguascalientes. From the riches produced by these holdings, the Rincon Gallardos were able to build this great palace.

View down the arcade on the west side of the ground floor, looking south toward some murals. The cantera of the columns, arches, doorways, and windows is beautifully carved. The work was probably done by indigenous craftsmen. However, they may have had to be brought in from Mexico City, Cholula, or Tlaxcala to the south, all areas where stone sculpture had an ancient pre-hispanic tradition. The nomadic Chichimecs in the areas around Aguascalientes had no use for stone carving and therefore no tradition of sculpting. When you move constantly and must carry everything by hand, a talent like stone carving would be superfluous.

View of the staircases from the 2nd floor, looking east to west. From the landing below, the main stairs lead down to the first courtyard on the right and the second on the left.

View through the portales to the murals on the south wall of the 2nd floor. It has been noted by some that the colors of the interior of the Palacio Gobernio mimic those of the Mexican flag: green, white, and red. Certainly this was not the work of the original architect back in 1665, since the Mexican State and its flag would not come into existence for another 150 years. The color scheme is no doubt a post-Independence creation.

View of the 2nd courtyard from the south side of the 2nd floor arcade. The stairs seen in the center mimic those seen previously when we entered through the building's ziguan. The sense of open space, divided by columns, comes across clearly in this photo.

Chichimecs mix it up with Spanish troops in the Battle of the Nopals. The battle gained its name because of large groves of nopal cactus in the area. This is a detail from one of the murals found in the ziguan. In the painting, the Chichimecs fight in the nude, which is probably historically accurate. Their warriors attack the armored Spanish (upper right) with arrows, spears, and the macuahuitl, an obsidian-edged broadsword carried by the mounted warrior at the top left. Meanwhile, the women steal the horses of the fallen Spaniards. This was classic guerrilla warfare, with hit and run tactics by light, highly mobile war parties against a heavy, slow-moving enemy. In addition to being encumbered by armor, the Spanish were reluctant to leave the silver caravans unprotected to chase  their attackers. This is one reason the war lasted 50 years. In my next posting, I will show many more of the wonderful murals of the Palacio Gobierno.

This completes Part 2 of my Aguascalientes series. I hope you enjoyed it and can sometime visit Aguascalientes and see the Catedral and Palacio Gobierno for yourself. If you would like to leave a comment, please do so in the Comments section below. If no one has previously left a comment, it will say "no comments" at the bottom of the page. Just click on that and it will take you to the Comments section.

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Hasta luego, Jim